Ethereum

17 min readJun 14, 2017

Ethereum is an open-source, public, blockchain-based distributed computing platform featuring smart contract (scripting) functionality, which facilitates online contractual agreements.[2]It provides a decentralized Turing-complete virtual machine, the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM), which can execute scripts using an international network of public nodes. Ethereum also provides a cryptocurrency token called “ether”, which can be transferred between accounts and used to compensate participant nodes for computations performed. Gas, an internal transaction pricing mechanism, is used to mitigate spam and allocate resources on the network.[2][3]

Ethereum was proposed in late 2013 by Vitalik Buterin, a cryptocurrency researcher and programmer. Development was funded by an online crowdsale during July–August 2014.[4]The system went live on 30 July 2015, with 11.9 million coins “premined” for the crowdsale.[5]This accounts for approximately 13 percent of the total circulating supply.[when?]

In 2016 Ethereum was forked into two blockchains, as a result of the collapse of The DAO project. The two chains have different numbers of users, and the minority fork was renamed to Ethereum Classic[6]. The majority fork has retained the name Ethereum (the subject of this article).[7][8][9][10]

History

Origin

Ethereum was initially described in a white paper by Vitalik Buterin,[11]a programmer involved with Bitcoin, in late 2013 with a goal of building decentralized applications.[12][13]Buterin had argued that Bitcoin needed a scripting language for application development. Failing to gain agreement, he proposed development of a new platform with a more general scripting language.[14]:88

The original four members of the Ethereum team were Vitalik Buterin, Mihai Alisie, Anthony Di Iorio, and Charles Hoskinson.[15]Formal development of the Ethereum software project began in early 2014 through a Swiss company, Ethereum Switzerland GmbH (EthSuisse).[16][17]Subsequently, a Swiss non-profit foundation, the Ethereum Foundation (Stiftung Ethereum) was set up as well.[4]Development was funded by an online public crowdsale during July–August 2014, with the participants buying the Ethereum value token (ether) with another digital currency, bitcoin.[4]While there was early praise for the technical innovations of Ethereum, questions were also raised about its security and scalability.[12]

ilestones

Several prototypes of the Ethereum platform were developed by the Foundation, as part of their Proof-of-Concept series, prior to the official launch of the Frontier network. The last of these prototypes culminated in a public beta pre-release known as “Olympic”.[18][19]The Olympic network provided users with a bug bounty of 25,000 ether for stress testing the limits of the Ethereum blockchain.

After Olympic, the Foundation announced the beginning of the Frontier network to mark the tentative experimental release of the Ethereum platform in July of 2015.[20][21]Since the initial launch, Ethereum has undergone several planned protocol upgrades called milestones, which are important changes affecting the underlying functionality and/or incentive structures of the platform.[22][23]

The current milestone is named “Homestead” and is considered stable.[24][25]It includes improvements to transaction processing, gas pricing, and security.[26][24][27]There are at least two other protocol upgrades planned in the future, i.e. Metropolis and Serenity. Metropolis is intended to reduce the complexity of the EVM and provide more flexibility for smart contract developers.[23]The move to Serenity is still uncertain, but should include a fundamental change to Ethereum’s consensus algorithm to enable a basic transition from hardware mining (proof-of-work) to virtual mining (proof-of-stake).[23][28]Improvements to scalability, specifically sharding, are also said to be a key objective on the development roadmap.[29][30]

Version Code name Release date Old version, no longer supported: 0 Olympic May, 2015[31] Old version, no longer supported: 1 Frontier July 30, 2015[31] Current stable version: 2 Homestead March 14, 2016[31] Future release: 3 Metropolis TBA[31] Future release: 4 Serenity TBA[31]

Legend:

Old version

Older version, still supported

Latest version

Latest preview version

Future release

The DAO hard fork

Ethereum earned notable media coverage in 2016 when a decentralized autonomous organization[32][33]called The DAO,[34]a set of smart contracts developed on the platform, raised a record USD$150M in a crowdsale to fund the project. The DAO was subjected to a spectacular exploit in June where USD$50M in ether were claimed by an anonymous entity.[35][36]The event sparked a significant debate in the crypto-community about whether Ethereum should perform a contentious “hard fork” to reappropriate the stolen funds.[37]As a result of the dispute, the network split in two. A minority who rejected the protocol update adopted the pre-fork version of the Ethereum blockchain and called it Ethereum Classic,[6]while the vast majority who supported have moved forward with the official post-fork Ethereum blockchain.[7][8][9][10]

The DAO incident created a schism between Ethereum and Ethereum Classic that has, according to some observers, spawned a bitter economic and psychological rivalry between the two networks.[38][39][40]The rivalry is a continuation of the hard fork dispute, where the anti-fork side (now called Ethereum Classic) argued for blockchain immutability, code is law, and essentially rebellion[41][42][43]against the pro-fork side (Ethereum) which largely argued for extra-protocol intentionality, decentralized decision-making, and conflict resolution.[44][45][46]Various critics of Ethereum Classic have denounced it as a scam[47][48]and a potential theft of intellectual property,[49]with similar controversial remarks being made on behalf of the opposing camp.[50]Ethereum Classic has retained some users of Ethereum and has also attracted others from the wider crypto-community who reject contentious forks on ideological grounds. The project, however, is not officially supported by the Ethereum Foundation,[9][51]nor is it generally endorsed by the consortium of developers,[52][53]business partners, miners, and users of the Ethereum ecosystem.

Other 2017 hard forks of the network

After The DAO fork, Ethereum subsequently forked two times in the fourth quarter of 2016 to deal with other attacks.[54]By the end of November 2016, Ethereum had increased its DDoS protection, de-bloated the blockchain, and thwarted further spam attacks by hackers.[27]

Architecture

Ether

The value token of the Ethereum blockchain is called ether. It is listed under the diminutive ETH and traded on cryptocurrency exchanges. It is also used to pay for transaction fees and computational services on the Ethereum network.[55]

Tokens can be volatile per circumstances, such as ether’s plunge from $21.50 to $8 when The DAO was hacked on June 17, 2016.[36]

Ethereum Virtual Machine

The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)[56][57]is the runtime environment for smart contracts in Ethereum. The formal definition of the EVM is specified in the Ethereum Yellow Paper by Gavin Wood.[58][59]It is sandboxed and also completely isolated from the network, filesystem or other processes of the host computer system. Every Ethereum node in the network runs an EVM implementation and executes the same instructions. Ethereum Virtual Machines have been implemented in C++, Go, Haskell, Java, Python, Ruby, Rust, and WebAssembly (currently under development).[60][61][62]

Smart contracts

Main article: Smart contract

Smart contracts are deterministic exchange mechanisms controlled by digital means that can carry out the direct transaction of value between untrusted agents.[63]They can be used to facilitate, verify, and enforce the negotiation or performance of economically-laden procedural instructions and potentially circumvent censorship, collusion, and counter-party risk. In Ethereum, smart contracts are treated as autonomous scripts or stateful decentralized applications that are stored in the Ethereum blockchain for later execution by the EVM. Instructions embedded in Ethereum contracts are paid for in ether (or more technically “gas”) and can be implemented in a variety of Turing complete scripting languages.[2][64]

Contracts on the public blockchain

As the contracts can be public, it opens up the possibility to prove functionality, e.g. self-contained provably fair casinos.[65]

One issue related to using smart contracts on a public blockchain is that bugs, including security holes, are visible to all but cannot be fixed quickly.[66]One example of this is the 17 June 2016 attack on The DAO, which could not be quickly stopped or reversed.[35]

There is ongoing research on how to use formal verification to express and prove non-trivial properties. A Microsoft Research report noted that writing solid smart contracts can be extremely difficult in practice, using The DAO hack to illustrate this problem. The report discussed tools that Microsoft had developed for verifying contracts, and noted that a large-scale analysis of published contracts is likely to uncover widespread vulnerabilities. The report also stated that it is possible to verify the equivalence of a Solidity program and the EVM code.[67]

Programming languages

Main article: Solidity

Smart contracts are high-level programming abstractions that are compiled down to EVM bytecode and deployed to the Ethereum blockchain for execution. They can be written in Solidity (a language library with similarities to C and JavaScript), Serpent (similar to Python), LLL (a low-level Lisp-like language), and Mutan (Go-based, but deprecated).[68]There is also a research-oriented language under development called Viper (a strongly-typed Python-derived decidable language).[69]

Performance

In Ethereum all smart contracts are stored publicly on every node of the blockchain, which has trade-offs.[70]The downside is that performance issues arise in that every node is calculating all the smart contracts in real time, resulting in lower speeds.[70]Ethereum engineers have been working on sharding the calculations, but no solution had been detailed by early 2016.[70]As of January 2016, the Ethereum protocol could process 25 transactions per second.[70]In September 2016, Buterin presented proposals to increase scalability.[30]

Use cases

The Ethereum platform has multiple proposed uses. Bloomberg describes it as “shared software that can be used by all but is tamperproof.”[71]Ethereum is used as a platform for decentralized applications, decentralized autonomous organizations and smart contracts, with “dozens of functioning applications” built on it by March 2016 according to the New York Times.[55][72]The intended scope of applications include projects related to finance, the internet-of-things, farm-to-table produce, electricity sourcing and pricing, and sports betting.[55]Decentralized autonomous organizations may enable a wide range of possible business models that were previously impossible or too costly to run.[73]

Ecosystem

The projects listed in this section are not exhaustive and may be outdated.

Clients and wallets

cpp-ethereum — Client implementation in C++.[74]
Geth — Client implementation in Go.[60]
Hyperledger Burrow[75]- Ethereum virtual machine implementation in Go, built by Monax.
Jaxx — Web wallet.[76]
KeepKey — Hardware wallet.[77]
Ledger Nano S — Hardware wallet.[78]
Mist — Desktop wallet.[79]
MyEtherWallet — Web wallet.[80]
Parity — Client implementation in Rust.[60]

Decentralized applications

Digital signatures that ensure authenticity and proof of existence of documents: the Luxembourg Stock Exchange has developed such a system[81]
Secure identity systems for the Internet: uPort[82][83]
Interactive grids for the Internet of Things (IoT), such as verification for physical assets utilizing Bluetooth low energy and near field communication chips.[84][85]Slock.It is developing smart locks[86]
Digital tokens pegged to fiat currencies: Decentralized Capital.[87]Spanish bank Santander is also involved in such a project[88]
Digital tokens pegged to gold: Digix[4][89]
Improved digital rights management for music: Imogen Heap used the technology[90]
Platforms for prediction markets: Augur (software), Gnosis[91][92]
Platforms for crowdfunding: the DAO (short for decentralized autonomous organization)[93][94][34]
Social media platforms with economic incentives: Backfeed,[95]Akasha[96]
Decentralized marketplaces for physical items, financial products or energy: FreeMyVunk,[97]Etheropt,[98]TransActive Grid[99]
Mobile payments services for foreign workers: Everex[100]
Authenticate users and managing the billing process through smart contracts: RWE car charging[101]

Enterprise software

Ethereum is being tested by enterprise software companies for various applications. Interested parties include Microsoft, IBM, JPMorgan Chase,[55][102]Deloitte,[103]R3,[72]Innovate UK (cross-border payments prototype).[104][105]

Enterprise Ethereum Alliance (EEA)

In March 2017, various blockchain start-ups, research groups, and Fortune 500 companies announced the creation of the Enterprise Ethereum Alliance (EEA)[106] — a nonprofit organization with over 116 enterprise members — including ConsenSys, Cornell University’s research group, Toyota Research Institute, Samsung SDS, Microsoft, Intel, J.P. Morgan, Merck & Co., DTCC, Deloitte, Accenture, Banco Santander, BNY Mellon, ING, and National Bank of Canada.[107][108][109]The purpose of the EEA is to coordinate the engineering of an open-source standard and private “permissioned” version of the Ethereum blockchain that can address the common interests of enterprises in banking, management, consulting, automotive, pharmaceutical, health, technology, mobile, entertainment, and other industries, while working with developers from the Ethereum ecosystem. Certain members of the alliance have also indicated a desire to investigate and collaborate on hybrid architectures to potentially anchor private blockchains to the public Ethereum blockchain in the future, although concerns remain over the security, compliance, and regulations involved in bridging such permissioned and “permissionless” blockchains.[106][110][109]

Permissioned ledgers

Ethereum is used and being investigated as a permissioned blockchain in various projects.

J.P. Morgan Chase is developing a blockchain, atop Ethereum. The system, dubbed “Quorum,” is designed to toe the line between private and public in the realm of shuffling derivatives and payments. The idea is to satisfy regulators who need seamless access to financial goings-on, while protecting the privacy of parties that don’t wish to reveal their identities nor the details of their transactions to the general public.[111]
Royal Bank of Scotland has announced that it has built a Clearing and Settlement Mechanism (CSM) based on the Ethereum distributed ledger and smart contract platform.[112][113]

References

^ “Ethereum Go GitHub repository”.
^ a b c Understanding Ethereum (Report). CoinDesk. 24 June 2016.
^ ConsenSys (2016–06–23). “Ethereum, Gas, Fuel, & Fees”. ConsenSys Media. Retrieved 2017–01–15.
^ a b c d Aitken, Roger (23 April 2016). “Digital Gold ‘Done Right’ With DigixDAO Crypto-Trading On OpenLedger”. Forbes. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
^ etherchain.org. “Accounts — etherchain.org — The ethereum blockchain explorer”. www.etherchain.org. Retrieved 2017–05–30.
^ a b van Wirdum, Aaron (19 August 2016). “Ethereum Classic Community Navigates a Distinct Path to the Future”. Bitcoin Magazine. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ a b De Jesus, Cecille (19 July 2016). “The DAO Heist Undone: 97% of ETH Holders Vote for the Hard Fork”. Futurism, LLC. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
^ a b Quentson, Andrew (17 July 2016). “Miners Vote Overwhelmingly in Support of Ethereum’s Hardfork”. Cryptocoinnews. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ a b c Buterin, Vitalik (26 July 2016). “Onward from the Hard Fork”. Ethereum Foundation. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ a b Bradley, Miles (17 November 2016). “CoinDesk Research: Ethereum Hard Fork Had Little Impact on Sentiment”. Coindesk. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ “White Paper · ethereum/wiki Wiki · GitHub”.
^ a b Finley, Klint (27 January 2014). “Out in the Open: Teenage Hacker Transforms Web Into One Giant Bitcoin Network”. Wired. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
^ Schneider, Nathan (7 April 2014). “Code your own utopia: Meet Ethereum, bitcoin’s most ambitious successor”. Al Jazeera. Retrieved 21 February 2016.
^ Tapscott, Don; Tapscott, Alex (2016–05–07). The Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin is Changing Money, Business, and the World. Portfolio. ISBN 978–0670069972. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ “Ethereum: Now Going Public”.
^ Schmid, Valentin (10 May 2014). “The Entrepreneur: Joe Lubin, COO of Ethereum”. Epoch Times. Retrieved 31 March 2016.
^ “Company Overview of Ethereum Switzerland GmbH”. Bloomberg. 2016–08–20. Archived from the original on 2016–08–20. Retrieved 2016–08–20. The company was founded in 2014 and is based in Baar, Switzerland.
^ Buterin, Vitalik (2015–05–09). “Olympic: Frontier Pre-Release”. Ethereum Foundation. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Lombardo, Hans (2015–05–17). “Ethereum Debuts “eπ” Ethereum-on-Raspberry Pi as Olympic Whirs before Frontier Release”. Allcoinsnews. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Gupta, Vinay (2015–03–12). “Getting to the Frontier”. Ethereum Foundation. Retrieved 2015–06–05.
^ Vigna, Paul (2015–07–31). “BitBeat: Ethereum Opens Its ‘Frontier’ for Business”. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Gupta, Vinay (2015–03–03). “The Ethereum Launch Process”. Ethereum Foundation. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ a b c Silva, Los (2017–02–25). “Ethereum’s Road Map for 2017”. ETHNews. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ a b “Ethereum Homestead Documentation: The Homestead Release”. Ethereum Foundation. n.d. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Donnelly, Jacob (2016–03–14). “Ethereum Blockchain Project Launches First Production Release”. CoindDesk. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Wilcke, Jeffrey (2016–02–29). “Homestead Release”. Ethereum Foundation. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ a b Hertig, Alyssa (2016–11–22). “Ethereum’s Fourth Blockchain Fork: So Far, So Good”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Hertig, Alyssa (2017–01–18). “Where’s Casper? Inside Ethereum’s Race to Reinvent its Blockchain”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Hertig, Alyssa (n.d.). “How Will Ethereum Scale?”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ a b Rizzo, Pete (2016–09–19). “Ethereum’s Creator Proves Blockchain Scaling Vision is No Joke”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ a b c d e Asharaf, S.; Adarsh, S. (2017). Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities. IGI Global. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9781522521938.
^ Buterin, Vitalik (6 May 2014). “DAOs, DACs, DAs and More: An Incomplete Terminology Guide”. Ethereum Foundation. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ Bannon, Seth (15 May 2016). “The Tao of “The DAO” or: How the Autonomous Corporation is Already Here”. TechCrunch. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ a b Vigna, Paul (16 May 2016). “Chiefless Company Rakes In More than $100 Million”. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ a b Popper, Nathaniel (18 June 2016). “Hacker May Have Taken $50 Million From Cybercurrency Project”. The New York Times. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ a b Price, Rob (17 June 2016). “Digital Currency Ethereum is Cratering Amid Claims of a $50 Million Hack”. Business Insider. Business Insider. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ Peck, Morgan (19 July 2016). “”Hard Fork” Coming to Restore Ethereum Funds to Investors of Hacked DAO”. IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News. IEEE. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
^ Hertig, Alyssa (28 July 2016). “Ethereum’s Two Ethereums Explained”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ Vigna, Paul (1 August 2016). “The Great Digital-Currency Debate: ‘New’ Ethereum Vs. Ethereum ‘Classic’”. Down Jones & Company Inc. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ Bovaird, Charles (21 August 2016). “Can Two Ethereum Markets Co-Exist?”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ “ETC Declaration of Independence” (PDF). ethereumclassic.github.io. 20 July 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ Pearson, Jordan (27 July 2016). “The Ethereum Hard Fork Spawned a Shaky Rebellion”. Motherboard. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ “Code is Law and the Quest for Justice”. ethereumclassic.github.io. 8 September 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ De Filippi, Primavera (11 July 2016). “A $50M Hack Tests the Values of Communities Run by Code”. Motherboard. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ Mougayar, William (21 June 2016). “What We Can Learn From The DAO”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ Eliosoff, Jacob (17 August 2016). “Why Ethereum Classic Must Die”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ Seaman, David. “”Ethereum Classic,” Another Bitcoin Scam”. Huffington Post.
^ “BTC-e calls Ethereum Classic ‘scam’”. Coinfox.
^ Berns, Jeffrey. “Should the Ethereum Foundation Take IP Action Against Ethereum Classic?”. BernsWeiss LLP.
^ “One of many Ethereum Classic websites”. ethereumclassic.com. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
^ Young, Joseph. “Vitalik Buterin Won’t Support ETC If It Takes Over ETH”. CoinTelegraph.
^ “ETH vs ETC — Developers Broadcast Their ‘100% Support for Ethereum’ — (Also just a great list of current Ethereum projects!)”. Steemit.
^ “Update on the projects that are “100% on ETH””. Reddit.
^ Redman, Jamie (14 October 2016). “Ethereum to Hard Fork Two More Times Following Recent Attacks”. Bitcoin.com. Bitcoin.com. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
^ a b c d Popper, Nathaniel (27 March 2016). “Ethereum, a Virtual Currency, Enables Transactions That Rival Bitcoin’s”. New York Times. Retrieved September 2, 2016.
^ “What is Ethereum? — Ethereum Homestead 0.1 documentation”. ethdocs.org.
^ Dannen, Chris (2017). “The EVM”. Introducing Ethereum and Solidity: Foundations of Cryptocurrency and Blockchain Programming for Beginners. Apress. pp. 47–67. ISBN 9781484225356.
^ Ethereum Yellow Paper by Gavin Wood
^ Triantafyllidis, Nikolaos Petros (19 February 2016). “The Ethereum Project: Ethereum History”. Developing an Ethereum Blockchain Application (Report). University of Amsterdam. p. 20.
^ a b c Asharaf, S.; Adarsh, S. (2017). “Appendix 1: Ethereum Clients”. Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities. IGI Global. p. 98. ISBN 9781522521938.
^ Dannen, Chris (27 March 2017). “Ethereum Devs Publish Roadmap for EVM Upgrade”. CryptoNews.
^ “Ethereum Client Implementations — EntEthAlliance — Confluence”. entethalliance.atlassian.net.
^ Szabo, Nick (1997). “The Idea of Smart Contracts”.
^ Asharaf, S.; Adarsh, S. (2017). “Bridging the Blockchain Knowledge Gap”. Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities. IGI Global. pp. 1–20. ISBN 9781522521938.
^ Piasecki, Piotr J. (2016). “Gaming Self-Contained Provably Fair Smart Contract Casinos”. Ledger. 1: 99–110. doi:10.5195/ledger.2016.29.
^ Peck, M. (28 May 2016). “Ethereum’s $150-Million Blockchain-Powered Fund Opens Just as Researchers Call For a Halt”. IEEE Spectrum. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
^ “Short Paper: Formal Verification of Smart Contracts” (PDF). microsoft.com/. Microsoft. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
^ Asharaf, S.; Adarsh, S. (2017). Decentralized Computing Using Blockchain Technologies and Smart Contracts: Emerging Research and Opportunities. IGI Global. pp. 71–72. ISBN 9781522521938.
^ Rivlin, Brianne (14 November 2016). “Geth, Viper, and Wafr: New Ethereum Developments”. ETHNews. Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ a b c d Allison, Ian (25 January 2016). “How are banks actually going to use blockchains and smart contracts?”. International Business Times. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
^ “This Is Your Company on Blockchain”. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 2016–09–14.
^ a b Allison, Ian (20 January 2016). “R3 connects 11 banks to distributed ledger using Ethereum and Microsoft Azure”. International Business Times. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
^ Bordet, Julián (21 March 2016). “Decentralized Autonomous Organizations: Ethereum Sparks Up Googles of Tomorrow”. The Cointelegraph. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
^ “ethereum/cpp-ethereum”. GitHub.
^ “Hyperledger Burrow Github Repository”. GitHub.com.
^ Redman, Jamie (13 February 2016). “Jaxx: The New Fleet of Bitcoin & Ethereum Wallets”. Saint Bitts LLC.
^ Silva, Los (23 November 2016). “KeepKey Hard Wallet Supports Ethereum”. ETHNews.
^ Faife, Corin (26 November 2016). “Ledger Launches Hardware Wallet for the Smart Contract Era”. CoinDesk.
^ “A Review of The Best Ethereum Wallets”.
^ Faife, Corin (10 February 2016). “MyEtherWallet Chrome Extension Beta Release”. Sebfor.
^ “Luxembourg Stock Exchange introduces blockchain into reporting service”. 2016–10–18. Retrieved 2016–11–04.
^ EconoTimes. “ConsenSys uPort wins International Blockchain Summit — EconoTimes”. EconoTimes. Retrieved 2017–02–06.
^ Allison, Ian (2016–09–23). “ConsenSys uPort scoops first prize in International Blockchain Summit Demo Day”. International Business Times UK. Retrieved 2017–02–06.
^ Young, Joseph. “Chronicled Introduces New Ethereum-Powered IoT Open Registry”. Nasdaq.
^ “Ethcore Announces Pre-release Of Its Blockchain Technology Suite ‘Parity’”. EconoTimes. 11 February 2016. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
^ Allison, Ian. “Ethereum-based Slock.it reveals first ever lock opened with money”. International Business Times UK.
^ Allison, Ian (September 12, 2016). “Decentralized Capital issuing fiat-backed digital assets on the Ethereum blockchain”. International Business Times.
^ “Santander Confirms Fiat-backed Token Project on Ethereum Blockchain”. CoinTelegraph. Retrieved 2017–01–15.
^ Buntinx, JP (28 April 2016). “DigixDAO DGD Assets To Be Listed on OpenLedger”. The Merkle. Retrieved 29 May 2016.
^ Allison, Ian (4 October 2015). “Imogen Heap shows how smart music contracts work using Ethereum”. International Business Times. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
^ “Ethereum Prediction Market Service Takes First Steps With Beta Launch — CoinDesk”. CoinDesk. 2016–08–17. Retrieved 2017–02–06.
^ “ICO Roundup 2017 by Cointelegraph: Cashing In On Blockchain Apps’ Mainstream Year”. CoinTelegraph. Retrieved 2017–02–06.
^ Rennie, Ellie (12 May 2016). “The radical DAO experiment”. Swinburne News. Swinburne University of Technology. Retrieved 12 May 2016. When it reaches the end of the funding phase on May 28, it will begin contracting blockchain-based start-ups to create innovative technologies. The extraordinary thing about The DAO is that no single entity owns it, and it has no conventional management structure or board of directors.
^ Allison, Ian (30 April 2016). “Ethereum reinvents companies with launch of The DAO”. International Business Times. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
^ Weinglass, Simona (19 August 2015). “Backfeed wants to decentralize the Internet and help you earn what you deserve”. Geektime.com. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
^ CFA, Adam Hayes, (2017–02–03). “This New Social Network is Powered by Ethereum Technology”. Investopedia. Retrieved 2017–02–06.
^ Allison, Ian (22 December 2015). “Game-changers FreeMyVunk and Digix allow video gamers to trade virtual assets for physical gold”. International Business Times. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
^ “Decentralized Options Exchange Etheropt Uses Automated Ethereum Smart Contract”.
^ Rutkin, Aviva (2 March 2016). “Blockchain-based microgrid gives power to consumers in New York”. New Scientist. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
^ Mizrahi, Avi (2016–12–01). “Everex Helps Migrant Workers Send Remittance Back to Myanmar via Ethereum”. Finance Magnates. Retrieved 2016–12–14.
^ Higgins, Stan. “Why a German Power Company is Using Ethereum to Test Blockchain Car Charging”. CoinDesk. Retrieved 2017–05–02.
^ “Hyperledger blockchain code almost comes together for IoT”. Rethink Research. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
^ Allison, Ian (3 May 2016). “Deloitte to build Ethereum-based ‘digital bank’ with New York City’s ConsenSys”. International Business Times.
^ “UK Government Awards £248k for Ethereum Prototype”. CoinDesk.
^ “Settlement using blockchain to Automate Foreign Exchange in a Regulated environment (SAFER)”. Innovate UK.
^ a b Popper, Nathaniel (2017–02–27). “Business Giants to Announce Creation of a Computing System Based on Ethereum”. New York Times. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Peck, Morgan (2017–03–02). “Corporate Titans Unite to Build an Enterprise Version of the Ethereum Blockchain”. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ “Enterprise Ethereum Alliance expands dramatically announcing 86 new members” (PDF) (Press release). Enterprise Ethereum Alliance (EEA). 2017–05–19. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ a b Shin, Laura (2017–05–22). “Ethereum Enterprise Alliance Adds 86 New Members Including DTCC, State Street And Infosys”. Forbes. Retrieved 2017–05–22.
^ “Newly formed enterprise collaboration drives Ethereum blockchain technology best practices focusing on security, privacy, scalability, and interoperability” (Press release). Market Wire. 2017–03–01. Retrieved 2017–06–05.
^ Hacket, Robert. “Why J.P. Morgan Chase Is Building a Blockchain on Ethereum”. Fortune.
^ “Proving Ethereum for the Clearing Use Case” (PDF).
^ Allison, Ian (December 7, 2016). “Blockchain: RBS builds Ethereum-based distributed clearing house”. IB Times. Retrieved May 8, 2017.