Passports, Shaping our Identity Throughout History
The concept of travel documents, or passports, has undergone significant changes throughout history. From the tablets issued by Genghis Khan to grant safe passage across the Mongol empire to the modern-day passport, the evolution of travel documents has mirrored the evolution of the nation-state. Through an exploration of the history of passports, one can gain an understanding of how these documents have shaped our identity and movement in today’s interconnected world. Ultimately, the sovereignty of the state has subordinated the concept of individual sovereignty, resulting in passports becoming the primary means of asserting one’s identity and legitimacy while traveling.
Early Iterations of Passports
Passports or similar forms of documentation have been used to facilitate travel and ensure safe passage for individuals throughout history, as evidenced by various references in ancient texts from different regions and time periods. For instance, the book of Nehemiah (2:7–9) in the Hebrew Bible describes a document which functioned similarly to a passport. This document requested safe passage for Nehemiah, cup-bearer to King Artaxerxes I of Persia.
Similarly, ancient Sanskrit treaties from India also contain references to documents that served as a form of identification and allowed safe passage through different territories. These treaties, which date back to as early as the 6th century BC, describe the use of seals which were used to authenticate travel documents and ensure safe passage. Various texts from across Asia and the Middle East also make reference to travel documents and safe passage.
“If it pleases the king, may I have letters to the governors of Trans-Euphrates, so that they will provide me safe-conduct until I arrive in Judah?”
Nehemiah 2:7–9 NIV
Even Marco Polo, the famous Venetian explorer, makes mention of documents that functioned like passports in his 13th century account of his travels.
Travels Documents in the Mongol Empire
Genghis Khan and his Mongol armies are often regarded as one of the most formidable military forces in history. Their rise to power at the end of the twelfth century marked a turning point in world history, as they rapidly conquered and consolidated territories across Asia and Europe. The vast Mongol empire that they created spanned a geographic area that was unprecedented at the time, stretching from China to Europe. The Silk Road, which had been established centuries earlier as a network of trade routes linking China with the Mediterranean, became even more important under the Pax Mongolica, a period of relative peace and stability that lasted for several decades.
The formidable military strength of the Mongol empire, coupled with their policy of ensuring safe passage for travelers, brought about a significant shift in the way people traversed across their empire. On this topic, Juvaini in The History of the World Conqueror (1958) remarked that
“as is said by way of hyperbole, a woman with a golden vessel on her head might walk alone without fear or dread.”
To ensure the safety of travelers and facilitate their movements, the use of travel documents took hold. Known as tablets, these documents were issued by the Khans and served to grant travelers safe passage across the Mongol empire, as well as the ability to demand certain services from locals. While these tablets were primarily provided to official envoys, it is worth noting that Marco Polo was also a holder of one such tablet. In fact, in 1266, Polo’s uncle and father were even offered golden tablets for their return journey from what is today Beijing.
From a convenient document to a mandatory passport
During the late Middle Ages, as territories and borders became more pronounced, the French began granting travelers safe passage by issuing “sauf conduit” documents. By the late 14th century in England, King Richard II and King Henry IV were signing travel documents for various lords. It wasn’t until the early 15th century, under King Henry V, that an act of Parliament granted the monarch the power to issue these documents for the protection of English travelers. In fact, it was in Shakespeare’s play Henry V, Act IV, Sc. 3, that we find the first mention of the word “passport”.
“That he which hath no stomach to this fight,
Let him depart; his passport shall be made”
Shakespeare, Henry V, Act IV, Sc. 3
The use of passports continued to evolve in Europe, becoming mandatory in France for traveling during the Ancient Regime, especially during the 7-year war. These documents served not only as proof of identity but also as a means of regulating and controlling the movement of people and goods across borders. In 1780, Benjamin Franklin is credited with using his own press to create a French passport, which enabled him to travel more freely.
The Shift in Sovereignty from Monarchs to Nation-States
The concept of sovereignty underwent a fundamental shift from the absolute authority of monarchs to the power of the state. This transformation occurred after the French Revolution, where the sovereign authority embodied by the state superseded any individual. The Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 articulated this principle in its Article 3, declaring that the nation was the essential source of all sovereignty, and no individual or group could exercise authority unless explicitly granted by the nation.
As the nation-state system developed, human beings became increasingly dependent on the state to travel. Territorial boundaries, borders, and citizenship became significant markers of identity, and the state began to monitor the movements of its citizens. In today’s mobile and interconnected world, even the freest of countries are unfree at the edge. The ritual of the passport illustrates this state of affairs: by summarizing our physical traits, it defines who we are and where we can go.
“The hospitality of the nation state is always conditional, even in times of peace, receiving guests only when they have been asked to guarantee their identities and testify to their intentions.”
Patrick Bixby, License to Travel: A Cultural History of the Passport
In this sense, individual sovereignty has been subordinated to the sovereignty of the state. The passport, once a document of convenience, has now become the primary means of asserting one’s identity and legitimacy while traveling. With it, a person’s identity is no longer under their control; instead, it depends on the state’s authority.
For a more in-depth understanding, you can review License to Travel: A Cultural History of the Passport, by Patrick Bixby.
