Excerpt from the manuscript “A Grand Unification Theory”.
For the full manuscript please request it from mnafousi@gmail.com

11) The Strong Force
Quotes from the current literature:
“The strong force is approximately 137 times as strong as electromagnetism, a million times of the weak interaction (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_interaction) and 1038 times the gravitational force. The strong nuclear force holds most ordinary matter together because it confines quarks (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark) into hadron (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron) particles such as the proton (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton) and neutron (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron). In addition, the strong force binds neutrons and protons to create atomic nuclei. Most of the mass (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-energy_equivalence) of a common proton (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton) or neutron (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron) is the result of the strong force field energy (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton#Quarks_and_the_mass_of_a_proton); the individual quarks provide only about 1% of the mass of a proton.”
“The strong interaction is observable at two ranges: on a larger scale, it is the force that binds protons (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton) and neutrons (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron) (nucleons) together to form the nucleus (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus) of an atom (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom). On the smaller scale, it is the force (carried by gluons (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluon)) that holds quarks (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark) together to form protons, neutrons, and other hadron (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron) particles. In the latter context, it is often known as the color force. The strong force inherently has such a high strength that hadrons bound by the strong force can produce new massive particles (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence). Thus, if hadrons are struck by high-energy particles, they give rise to new hadrons instead of emitting freely moving radiation (gluons (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluon)). This property of the strong force is called color confinement (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_confinement), and it prevents the free “emission” of the strong force: instead, in practice, jets (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_(particle_physics)) of massive particles are produced.”
“Quarks and gluons are color-charged particles. Just as electrically-charged particles interact by exchanging photons, color-charged particles exchange gluons in strong interactions. In so doing, these color-charged particles are often “glued” together. The main difference between strong and electromagnetic interactions is the fact that the strong force-carrier particles (the gluons) themselves carry color charge. Photons, on the other hand, have no color charge. Two or more quarks close to each other rapidly exchange gluons, creating a very strong “color force field” binding the quarks together. There are three color charges, and three corresponding anti-color (complementary color) charges. Quarks constantly change their color charge as they exchange gluons with other quarks. Each quark has one of the three color charges; and each antiquark has one of the three complementary color charges. Gluons carry color/anti-color pairs (they don’t necessary have to be the same color; i.e.. red / anti-blue gluons are legal). While there are 9 possible combinations of color/anti-color pairs, due to symmetry considerations one of these combinations is eliminated. A gluon can effectively carry one of eight possible color/anti-color combinations.”
“Quark Confinement: Color-charged particles cannot be found individually. For this reason, the color-charge quarks are confined in groups (hadrons) with other quarks. These composites are color neutral. How does color charge work? Color charge is always conserved. Therefore, when a quark emits or absorbs a gluon, that quark’s color must change in order to conserve color charge. For example, suppose a “red” quark changes into a “blue” quark and emits a “red/anti-blue” gluon. The net color is still “red.” Quarks emit and absorb gluons very frequently within a hadron, so there is no way to observe the color of an individual quark. Within a hadron, though, the color of the two quarks exchanging a gluon will change in a way that keeps the bound system in a color-neutral state, so it will stay observable.
Color-Force Field: The quarks in a given hadron madly exchange gluons. For this reason, physicists talk about the color-force field which consists of the gluons holding the bunch of quarks together. If one of the quarks in a given hadron is pulled away from its neighbors, the color-force field “stretches” between that quark and its neighbors. In so doing, more and more energy is added to the color-force field as the quarks are pulled apart. At some point, it is energetically cheaper for the color-force field to “snap” into two new quarks. In so doing, energy is conserved because the energy of the color-force field is converted into the mass of the new quarks, and the color-force field can “relax” back to an unstretched state. Quarks cannot exist individually because they must maintain a color-force field with other quarks.”
Let us simplify the above using our thought experiments. We star with an introduction to explain the two fundamental basic energy particles.
Introduction.
As introduction and for the sake of clarity let us repeat below the key postulations being made in this manuscript regarding the building blocks of the universe and the proposed fundamental interactions (or fundamental forces) which are not reducible to more basic ones. In this manuscript we suggest that at the heart of everything there is only two basic energy particles (BEP), and a relationship exist between them in line with the supersymmetry theoretical formulation . We have also proposed that all particles of the standard model, including all bosons, fermion particles and the proposed space particles (SP), are made only of these two BEP.
The Two Basic Energy Particles, Their Nature And Characteristics
a) Strings of Energy (for short: “strings”, or “energy”, or “energy clouds”),
- They are wavey spring-like particles made from identically vibrating energy with left handed or right handed helicities (spins) continuously moving at the speed of light. Each type of helicity is equal to the ½ spin associated with the different types of fermion particles. The axis of their spin is ready to take any orientation.
- - Strings with different helicities exhibit coupling attraction. We have termed “Coupling Force (CF)”. Coupled strings exhibit an integer spin (spin=1) as in the case of different bosons. The act of coupling involves two strings with different helicities getting intertwined, while the act of decoupling is when they are stretched out and separated by the decoupling force, caused by the electrostatic attraction applied by the singularities residing at the nuclei of the fermion and space particles (SP).
- - A number of strings of both helicities join together to form a bundle of energy. Different numbers of these bundles form the different photons. Excited fermion particles emits strings of energy with different helictites. They get coupled together forming the photons and gluons.
- - Once photons or gluons get in proximity to fermion particles with different helicities, they decouple. leading to their split and absorption by the energy clouds of these particles.
- - The coupling and decoupling forces also explain how virtual photons and gravitons are emitted and absorbed by the SP.
- - Strings of single helicity form the energy clouds of the fermion particles, and strings of both helictites form the energy clouds of the SP and the various bosons.
- - The strings of energy represent all the observed energy in the universe and associated with all the planck measurements. The wave functions of the fermion and space particles are fully managed and controlled by the kinetic energy of the singularities and their electrostatic force.
- b) The Singularities
- In this manuscript we have proposed the existence of the elusive singularities. Most of the current conundrums in physics emanate from their absence in the various models dealing with the working of the universe. The key characteristics of the singularities are:
- - Point-like energy particles
- They are unobservable, massless, point-like energy particles spinning clockwise (CW) or anticlockwise (ACW) at the constant speed of light. Their continuous spin gives them the freedom or independence from joining each other. The axes of their spins are free to take any vector orientation.
- - Electric charges
- The directions of their spins within the nuclei of the fermion and space particles account for the intrinsic positive and negative charges of relevant particles. Paired singularities, with different spin directions, add up to zero electric charge. Singularities with the same spin direction repulse each other, while those with opposite directions attract each other. We term this force, for consistency with current literature,“Electrostatic Force (EF)”.
- - Centripetal Force
- The singularities’ spins create the Centripetal Force which is fundamental for many of the quantum mechanical activities of the universe. The axes of their orientations are subject to the Gyroscopic effect, when they interact with or disturbed by other singularities. The associated centrifugal outward directed force presses the SP against each other forming the extremely fine fabric or network of finite foams-like bubbles of energy known as the “vacuum” at rest state geometry. For short we use VSP to denote Vacuum space particles, and FSP to denote field space particles.
- - Decoupling Force
- Singularities which are spinning ACW attract strings with left handed helicity, and those spinning CW attract strings with right handed helicity, leading to the creation of the Decoupling Force.
- - Conservation of singularities
- A law for the conservation of singularities has been proposed in line with the conservation of charge. This means that fermion particles don’t get completely annihilated into pure energy but always end up with lighter fermion particles, like the almost massless neutrinos and antineutrinos, which are difficult to detect. This is supported by the reported observation of a relatively higher number of neutrinos and antineutrinos found around nuclear power stations.
- - The centripetal force (Fc or Fc )
- The centripetal force generated by the singularities is: Fc= mc2/r, (where Fc= the constant centripetal force resulting of the spinning of a given number of singularities at the speed of light, m = mass of the orbiting energy strings, E, managed and controlled by the singularities, c= speed of light, and r = the radius of the orbiting energy cloud of a space particle). The centripetal force law of a space particle can then be reduced to Fc= E/r.
- - Speed of spinning bubbles of energy (Spinning angular momentum, Sam)
- Since the energy orbiting the singularities is the constant speed of light, c, then the spinning speed, Sam= c/(2π r). Since Fc= E/r then. Sam= c Fc/ (2π E). As “c Fc/ (2π” is a constant value, then the speed of the spinning bubbles of energy is in reverse ratio to the energy of the field space particles and to their radii. This is a key equation in determining the strength of force fields. For the space particles to turn into force fields’ spinning bubbles of energy their singularities’ spinning axes need to align in specific directions to produce the aimed orientations.
- - Positions and vector orientations
- The different positions and vector orientations of the space particles’ singularities are important in determining the vector orientations of the force fields. In case of gravitational fields, the singularities spinning orientations would be toward the centre of the mass. In case of electromagnetic fields the singularities have multiple orientations determined by the relative positions and strengths of moving charged particles responsible for the generation of specific field.
- - Drivers of the waves functions
- Positions of the singularities within the nuclei of the fermion particles determine the different geometry of their wave functions. The singularities reset their interaction with each other by getting closer together to reboot their activities in readiness to restart another set of interactions as part of the universe symmetry conservation. The reset is observed as a collapse of the wave function of the relevant fermion particle. This reset is key to explaining the entanglement conundrum. It is an error correction process of the universe information.
- - The singularities are found in groups of six or multiple thereof as in the case of the SP and the second and third generations fermion particles. The number “Six” is the unit of measurement when it comes to the singularities. So the electron charge of -1 means it has 6 anti clockwise singularities. The up quarks +⅔ charge means it has 5 CW and 1 ACW singularities ((+5–1)/6=+⅔). The down quark has 2 CW and 4 ACW singularities giving -⅓ charge.
- - Creation of Volume and Mass.
- The interaction of the singularities’ fermion particles with the vacuum SP, lead. to the formation of their quantum fields, the hadrons confinements, the additional micro dimensions, the spatial volume, the relativistic mass and micro gravity.
- - Digital Information. The two types of the singularities’ spin represent the bits (the zeros and ones) used by the universe digital information to determine the type of subatomic particles. They play key roles in giving the subatomic particles their digital codes’ types. They are also very important in determining other aspects of the subatomic particles quantum states.
- c) Space Particles (SP).
- The SP are foam-like bubbles of energy pressed into hexagon geometry by the centrifugal force of their singularities. In this manuscript we have proposed that 12 singularities form the nuclei of a space particle. This makes the centripetal force of a space particle the most important constant of proportionality between its orbiting strings of energy and its radius (Fc=E/r). The relationships between the intrinsic forces of the two BEP are behind the three constants that define free space, namely:
- The electric constant (vacuum permittivity) which defines the capacity of the vacuum to permit electric field lines, or using our terminology, the measure of the response of the SP singularities to realign their positions in response to the presence of net fermion particles’ charge.
- The magnetic constant or the vacuum permeability measures the influence of the vacuum on the production of the magnetic flux lines from a moving electric charge. Using our terminology it is a measure of the responses of the magnetic fields’ singularities to the changing positions of electric fields’ singularities.
- The vacuum impedance constant. It is the measure of the opposition to the flow of an alternating current in free space. It relates to the magnitude of the electric field strength to the magnitude of the magnetic fields for electromagnetic radiation traveling through free space. It is equal to the product of the vacuum permeability and the speed of light.
- The interaction between the intrinsic forces of the BEP are behind all the known constants of electromagnetism. These also include, Coulomb’s proportionality constant which is a derivative of the electrostatic constant. The fine structure constant characterizes the strength of electromagnetic interactions between elementary charged particles,i.e. the strength of the electrostatic attraction and repulsion forces of the singularities which give the fermion particles their net electric charges.
- The SP in their geometrical rest state would be termed as Vacuum Space Particles or VSP for short. The assumed vacuum has all of the properties that a particle may have such as spin, energy, magnetic moments, etc. On average, these properties cancel out due to the equal number of singularities which are spinning CW & ACW, and the equal number of strings with left handed and right handed helicities. This is what constitutes the vacuum at its “rest state geometry” and gives the perception of a vacuum that is “empty”. The vacuum exhibits zero charge and zero spin. These are similar to the characteristics associated with the elusive Higgs boson particles. Using the data of the standard model, then we speculate that the mass of a space particle would be 125.09 GeV/c2 similar to that of a Higgs boson particle. We have proposed that every two SP form the fermion particles of a hydrogen atom, i.e. two up quarks and one down quark forming the proton plus an orbiting electron. The total mass of these 4 fermion particles is 10.111MeV/c2. This means that when these four fermion particles are formed from two SP, about 99.6% of their energy clouds is converted to photons. It also means that as the fermion particles interact with the adjacent VSP, they borrow from them about 99% of the protons’ energy to from their confinements and the gluons. It is this process of borrowing energy from the VSP which leads to the creation of their gravitational flux lines.
- d) Formation of fields
- When VSP are disturbed by fermion particles their energy level changes leading to changes in their geometry. These changes in the VSP geometry turn them into FSP. Different fields are mere manifestations of the different disturbances in the geometry of the SP. The FSP turn into spinning bubbles of energy with different speed and specific vector orientation determined by the types of disturbances. Fields are quantized.
- The varying spins angular momentum of the energy cloud of the FSP are determined by the relationship Sam= c/2π r (or Sam= c Fc/ 2π E) . In case of FSP, their E & r would have different micro measurements to those associated with VSP. If we define the unit of measuring time as a rotation of the strings of energy around the singularities of a space particle, tc, then tc= (2π r)/ c. As “r” is variable, then time’s unit of measurement would also be variable, hence the observed time dilation. These equations give us the unit of measuring space micro time, tc= 1/Sam, hence time changes with the change in its basic unit of measurement.
- As r approaches zero at the black hole level, the current laws of physics wouldn’t work as they would give zeros or infinite values.
- Keeping in mind the above introduction, below are our key postulations:
- - Fermion particles Interaction Rules
- Rules which govern flavors’ changes within the confinements:
- 1. Only Particles with different helicities get involved in exchanging their singularities, due to the intrinsic nature of the coupling and decoupling forces.
- 2. For stable hadrons, helicities and charges within the confinements are conserved.
- 3. For stable confinements, each of the three fermion particles must have only six singularities each (type one particles in the standard model).
- 4. Creation of electron flavor in the neutrons without a relatively high level of pressure leads to their decay. This explains beta decay and why free electrons are unstable.
- - Gluons Emission and Absorption
- According to our thought experiments, the up quarks are made of five CW and one ACW singularities (making their net electric charge +⅔) with right handed strings of energy helicity. The down quarks are made of two CW and four ACW singularities with left handed helicities (making the charge -⅓). The two up quarks and one down quarks with their non integer charges drive their energy waves in boomerang angular momentum leading to the localization of their interactions with the SP. This leads to the creation of the confinement, the additional micro 6/7 dimensions. The continuous irregular angular momentum of the quarks get them in sufficient proximity allowing the strings of energy with different helicity to couple together, emitting in the process the gluons and allowing singularities to be exchanged between the two interacting fermion particles. As the gluons get between the quantum fields of two fermion particles with different helictites, they get stretched and pulled by the electrostatic force of the singularities. This coupling and decoupling forces in such tiny spatial confinement is the source of the strong force.
- - The Strong Force
- The two up quarks (u,u) or their derivative and the one down quark (d) or its derivative in a confinement are continuously interacting in accordance with the rules of fermion interactions. This leads to the continuous emission and absorption of the gluons due to the intrinsic coupling and decoupling forces explained in the introduction. This process is observed as the strong force which keeps the fermion particles within the confinements glued together. Similar coupling and decoupling processes between the fermion particles of adjacent neutrons and atoms in a nucleus get them glued together and keep the neutrons stable.
- - Creation of Mass
- The creation of the confinements and the gluons energies make up 99% of the hadrons mass. The energy is borrowed from the adjacent vacuum space particles leading to their conversion to gravitational flux lines as explained in the introduction above.
- - Quantum Chromodynamics Activities (QCA)
- Now let us try to explain QCA within the confinements responsible for creating the hadrons using the main characteristics of the two basic energy particles relying the fermion interactions rules spelled out above. The QCA represent the emission and absorption of the gluons with their gluing force termed as the strong force, and the exchange of singularities between different fermion particles termed as colour, flavor changes.
- Flavor changes.
- The three quarks get involved in continuous flavor changes. We speculate that a flavor change involves the exchange of singularities between two interacting fermion particles with energy clouds of different helictites. From the exhibit below we note 3 flavor changes involve two different type of quarks and 3 other flavor changes involve a lepton and quark:
- Start with u,u,d
- u & d. interact and turn into e+ & u-, we are left with e+,u,u-
- u & u- interact and turn into d & d-, we are left with e+,d,d
- e+ & d interact and turn into u & Ve-, we are left with u,Ve-,d
- Ve-& d interact and turn into u & d, we are left with u,u,d
- Other interactions
- u & Ve- interact and turn into e+ & d, we are left with e+,d,d
- d & d- interact and turn into u & u-, we are left with e+,u,u
- These are very fast and continuous flavor changes. At all times, at least two quarks are present to keep their boomerang angular momentum which maintain the localization of the confinement. We note that in case of protons there is no electron flavor, hence the their stability in comparison with antiprotons.
- The exhibit below shows structure of the quarks/ leptons in term of the BEP and how in the process of flavor changes they exchange singularities and create lepton particles as intermediaries to ensure compliance with the rules governing fermion particles interactions mentioned in this work.
- Any two particles involved in exchanging their singularities are marked with the symbol “💥”. The symbol “🔄” denotes the possible changeover in either direction. The exhibit below gives us 8 possible types of interactions.
12) The Weak Force
