Is the Universe Expanding?

Expansion of space postulation is based on the evidence of the redshift phenomenon associated with supernova explosions. If any evidence is found to support that photons passing through changing geometry of the fabric of space leads to blueshift as well as redshift then the expansion of space postulation needs to be re-examined. This is specifically true as some observations. based on the redshift evidence shows that the universe in some parts of the universe is expanding at faster than the speed of light.
The excerpt below from the manuscript “A Grand Unification Theory” deals with some of the major mysteries associated with studying the universe.
15. Dark matter, Dark Energy, Expanding Universe, Neutron Stars
15.1 What is dark matter?
According to the current scientific speculations, dark energy makes up roughly 68% of the universe and dark matter makes up 27%. This leaves only 5% representing what we know as stars, planets,electromagnetic radiations and everything else. This implies that dark energy is almost equivalent to 3 times the dark matter and the latter is almost five times the normal matter.
Physicists have not yet reached a definite conclusion as to what dark matter is made of?
Based on our thought experiments and in support of our hypothesis that simplicity is behind everything that exist in the universe, we have proposed that dark matter is made of very condensed singularities and strings of energy which are the only two basic particles responsible for all that exist in the universe as explained earlier. We have also proposed that the majority of the calculated dark matter in the universe is probably the remnants unexploded parts of the original stuff that got the universe starting. Dark matter mass is continuously increasing by acting as cosmic vacuum absorbing all types of subatomic particles which enter its gravitational field. Some of that mass is lost due to Hawking radiations or due to new big bangs.
We also speculate that fractions of the dark matter (and/ or. probably a meaningful clusters of condensed neutrons) may have played key roles in providing the necessary gravitational pull for collecting the cosmic dust to form the various stars and galaxies. The bigger the clusters of dense matter (up to a certain level) the bigger the formed stars. Beyond that level, the formed stars would collapse and turns into neutron stars or black holes.
Bigger fractions of the dark matter are in effect the black holes at the centre of all the galaxies. The masses of these black holes over time become proportional to the size of their respective galaxies, otherwise those galaxies would not be stable. A relatively small black hole at the centre of a galaxy would lead to the distant heavenly bodies to leave its orbit due to any slight disturbance to their gravitational field. A relatively massive black hole will keep trapping loose space debris within its gravitational field and the galaxy would get bigger.
So we have proposed that without the black holes/ dark matter there would have been no stable galaxies, no stars, no planets and no continuous renewal of the universe.
The high gravitational field of dark matter lead to the bending of the photons as they have to follow the path of that geometry. It also leads to gravitational time dilation as the more condensed the fabric of space the shorter the unit of measuring time. Beyond a certain gravitational level, speed of light would not be sufficient to get photons to escape. At the Black Hole level, current laws of physics give zeros or infinity values, as distance and time units of measurements are reduced well below planck measurements. New laws of physics are required to accommodate the working of the universe based on the nature and characteristics of the two basic energy particles at such distances.
Some of the condensed energy quanta of dark matter manage to escape as Hawking Radiations. The greater the mass of the dark matter the lower the escaping Hawking radiations and vice versa.
15.2 Dark Energy
Let us start with the current literature regarding dark energy.
“More is unknown than is known. We know how much dark energy there is because we know how it affects the universe’s expansion. Other than that, it is a complete mystery. But it is an important mystery. It turns out that roughly 68% of the universe is dark energy. One explanation for dark energy is that it is a property of space. Albert Einstein was the first person to realize that empty space is not nothing. Space has amazing properties, many of which are just beginning to be understood. The first property that Einstein discovered is that it is possible for more space to come into existence. Then one version of Einstein’s gravity theory, the version that contains a cosmological constant, makes a second prediction: “empty space” can possess its own energy. Because this energy is a property of space itself, it would not be diluted as space expands. As more space comes into existence, more of this energy-of-space would appear. As a result, this form of energy would cause the universe to expand faster and faster. Unfortunately, no one understands why the cosmological constant should even be there, much less why it would have exactly the right value to cause the observed acceleration of the universe.
Another explanation for how space is made of energy comes from the quantum theory of matter. In this theory, “empty space” is actually full of temporary “virtual” particles that continually form and then disappear. But when physicists tried to calculate how much energy this would give empty space, the answer came out wrong — wrong by a lot. The number came as 1 with 120 zeros after it.This is known as the “catastrophic” calculation.
A last possibility is that Einstein’s theory of gravity is not correct. That would not only affect the expansion of the universe, but it would also affect the way that normal matter in galaxies and clusters of galaxies behaved. This fact would provide a way to decide if the solution to the dark energy problem is a new gravity theory or not: we could observe how galaxies come together in clusters. But if it does turn out that a new theory of gravity is needed, what kind of theory would it be? How could it correctly describe the motion of the bodies in the Solar System, as Einstein’s theory is known to do, and still give us the different prediction for the universe that we need? There are candidate theories, but none are compelling. So the mystery continues.”
According to Einstein, the cosmological constant is the value of energy density of the vacuum of space. It was introduced to the general relativity equation to hold back gravity and achieve a static universe. Since the expanding universe theory took hold, the cosmological constant assumed to have positive value to explain the existence of dark energy responsible for the expansion of the universe.”
From the above summary, we may assume that the cosmological constant refers to the energy that makes up the fabric of space. The Quantum Fields Theory and others also confirm the existence of energy in the condensate (the unified field) in order to explain the temporary increase in mass associated with W and Z Bosons. We have argued throughout this work that the energy of each space particle is equivalent to the energy of any of the common pair of a fermion particle with its respective antiparticle. If the cosmological constant is a known value and equivalent to the energy which makes up the fabric of space, then we can calculate the number of space particles which make up space. I would be very large indeed. Regarding the assumed expansion of space based on the redshift observations, we have associated that redshift with the disturbances in the geometry of the fabric of space through which the standard candles (photons) pass.
15.3 Is the Universe Expanding?
Quotes from current literature.
“Since the time of Hubble, Astronomers have observed millions of galaxies with better equipment and verified this results. With the exception of a handful of galaxies close to us, every galaxy is moving away from us. And in fact, the farther away a galaxy is the faster it is moving away from us. This fits in very well with Einstein’s predictions. The galaxies seem to be receding from us because the entire universe is getting larger. The space in between the galaxies is stretching. The farther away a galaxy is the more space there is to stretch so the faster the galaxy appears to move away from us.
You could conceivably do an experiment to prove this: if you know that a 60 watt light bulb gives off a certain amount of energy, and then measure the energy received from a 60 watt light bulb across the room from you, you could calculate the distance to that lightbulb.
Astronomers can take advantage of standard candles to determine the distance of objects like galaxies. Using a specific type of supernova, astronomers determined both the distance of the galaxy and the redshift of the frequency of the emitted light. The level of “Redshift” basically tells us how much the Universe has expanded since the light left the supernova. The astronomers could then compare distance to expansion, and create a kind of ‘expansion history’ of the Universe. It turned out that these results shows that the rate of the Universe’s expansion was increasing.
Why does this finding lead us to the idea of ‘dark energy’? Well, the increased rate of expansion means that the Universe is getting bigger and bigger due the stretching of the fabric of space. Since gravity is an attractive force, you would instead expect the Universe get smaller. If the Universe continues to expand, faster and faster, some force or pressure must be behind this expansion.
According to some reported measurements of the redshift phenomenon, space is expanding in some places at a greater speed than the speed of light. This contradiction of fundamental law of nature makes it easier for us look somewhere else for an explanation of the redshift measurements.
The recent Nasa research used two space telescopes to work out exactly how quickly the universe was growing. Discovering that important number could help understand where the cosmos came from and where it is going. But the new precise measurement actually leads to more confusion than it dispels. There seems to be a strange mismatch in the way the universe is expanding — a discovery that could suggest there is an entirely new physics underpinning the universe, waiting to be found.
The mysterious results could be caused by dark matter, dark energy being even more exotic than previously thought, or an unknown new particle in the tapestry of space, Nasa said.”
According to our thought experiments, we propose alternative explanations to the redshift calculations. If the fabric of space is stretching uniformly then we should observe such expansion within our own galaxy. To date there is no such measurement, no matter how tiny it has been.
A) Galaxies are in continuous motion.
Since all Galaxies are controlled by black holes at their centers, then there is no reason why different galaxies are not moving at different speeds in multiple directions and away from the original or subsequent big bangs. The directions and speeds at which galaxies are moving determined by their original emitting forces and the gravitational forces that may experience in their paths. Many galaxies would appear to be racing away while others may be getting closer at some places or times.
B) Redshift phenomenon
Physicists have concluded that the universe is expanding due the redshift of the candle stick light emanating from a supernova. By measuring the extent of the redshift they can measure the speed at which an object moving away from the observer. We speculate that the redshift is not due to the speeding away of the object but due to change in the geometry of the fabric of space resulting from a supernova. We have argued that collapsing supernova into a neutron star lead to increasing the energy of the space particles in the vacuum left behind as the supernova ends up into a small spinning ball of condensed neutrons. The temporary increased energy of the SP lead to expanding their geometry according to the law of proportionality Fc=E/r. As photons move through such expanded SP geometry, the wavelength of the candlestick expand leading to the observed redshift. Using this type of thinking, those supernovae exhibiting greater redshift may be due to being larger rather than being further or moving away faster. Such conclusion would undermine the expanding universe theory.
C) Holographic Universe. If we are living in a simulated reality then the redshift observation could be just an aspect of the intrinsic logarithms associated with the working of the universe to give the impression of an expanding universe. This would imply that photons are programmed to lose some of their energy as they travel within the space matrix to create a virtual reality of expanding distances. This would also support the current. conclusion that the level of the redshift is proportional with distance and gives the impression of a greater expansion. Such interpretation would avoid the reported dilemma by some cosmologist that the universe at some far away distances could be expanding at greater than the constant speed of light.
15.4 Neutron stars
Stars which are million of times the size of our Sun, explodes as a supernova leaving behind Neutron stars. Scientists estimate that 90% of the energy of the exploding supernova is in fact released as neutrinos and antineutrinos. This support our postulation regarding the conservation of singularities and the important roles of these lepton particles in the working of the universe.
We also speculate that the huge gravitational pull of small clusters of condensed neutrons may have played important roles in the collection of the cosmic dust to form the stars.
15.5 Boundaries of space
Does the Universe have an edge, beyond which there is nothing?
According to current literature: “Galaxies extend as far as we can detect with no sign of diminishing.There is no evidence that the universe has an edge. The part of the universe we can observe from Earth is filled more or less uniformly with galaxies extending in every direction as far as we can see — more than 10 billion light-years, or about 6 billion trillion miles. We know that the galaxies must extend much further than we can see, but we do not know whether the universe is infinite or not. When astronomers sometimes refer (carelessly!) to galaxies “near the edge of the universe,” they are referring only to the edge of the OBSERVABLE universe — i.e., the part we can see.”
According to our model of the universe, the fabric of space is a finite cloud of pressed space particles. The total geometry of the energy cloud may be in the shape of a hollow ballon or a bubble. As all subatomic particles including photons must exist within the fabric of space therefore the universe has no edges as photons travel only within the fabric of space. This would give all observers, anywhere in the universe, the feeling of being at the center of an infinite universe. The curvature of space could not be observed as photons bend with its geometry.
We can observe just as far as photons had the time to reach us and subject to the current technological limitations. As photons travel over great distances, they widely spread out and the signals from specific galaxies get much weaker and very difficult to detect.
Although the age of the universe is estimated to be 13.7 billion years, the light emanated from the original Big Bang could keep going indefinitely within the balloon like fabric of space. This could give the impression that the universe is much bigger (or even infinite) and its age much older than it’s true age
