Mahmoud Nafousi
Sep 4, 2018 · 25 min read

New theory of gravity. For the full manuscript titled “A Grand Unification Theory” write to mnafousi@gmail.com

10) A New Look At Gravity

Gravity according to current literature,

“The search for full understanding of gravity is still ongoing. Newton described it as a gravitational pull between two objects in direct relations to their mass and in reverse relationship to the square distance between them. This gravitational pull is measured in terms of the weight of the objects. We now know that weight and mass are not the same as astronauts in space will be weightless while their mass would be the same as that on earth. Einstein on the other hand defined gravity as the result of a distortion in the curvature of the fabric of space-time according to his general theory of relativity. Still more recent theories of gravity explain it in term of particles and waves. String theory states that particles called “gravitons” (never been observed) causes objects to be attracted to one another similar to the role played by virtual photons. Other theories speak of the existence of gravitational waves generated when an object is accelerated by an external force. They form ripples in the curvature of spacetime due to certain gravitational interactions and propagate as waves outward from their source at the speed of light.

Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics and reconciles it with general relativity. Theorists have taken up more radical approaches to the problem of quantum gravity, the most popular approaches being string theory and loop quantum gravity. Although some quantum gravity theories, such as string theory, try to unify gravity with the other fundamental forces, others, such as loop quantum gravity, make no such attempt; instead, they make an effort to quantize the gravitational field while it is kept separate from the other forces.

In semiclassical gravity, matter is represented by quantum matter fields that propagate according to the theory of quantum fields in curved spacetime. Einstein’s general theory of relativity describes the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by mass and energy. It relates local spacetime curvature with its local energy and momentum. spacetime is expressed by the stress — energy tensor which describes the density and flux of energy and momentum within it. The stress — energy tensor is the source of the gravitational field in the Einstein field equations of general relativity, just as mass density is the source of such a field in Newtonian gravity.

The Loop quantum gravity theory merges quantum mechanics and general relativity. It is the leading competitor to string theory. The main output of the theory is a physical picture of granular space. The granularity is a direct consequence of quantization. Here, space itself is discrete, which means that there is a minimum Planck length (10−35 meters) to travel through it. More precisely, space can be viewed as an extremely fine fabric or network “woven” of finite loops. These networks of loops are called Spin Network or Spin Foams. This supports the speculations that not just matter, but space itself, has a quantized atomic structure. Loop quantum gravity could also lend support to digital physics, since it assumes space-time is quantized. Paola Zizzi has formulated a realization of this concept in what has come to be called “computational loop quantum gravity”. Other theories that combine aspects of digital physics with loop quantum gravity are those of Marzuoli and Rasetti plus Girelli and Livine.”

Our Proposed Formulation Regarding Gravity

As introduction and for the sake of clarity let us repeat below the key postulations being made in this manuscript regarding the building blocks of the universe and the proposed fundamental interactions (or fundamental forces) which are not reducible to more basic ones. In this manuscript we have suggested that at the heart of everything in the universe is only two basic energy particles (BEP), and a relationship exist between them in line with the supersymmetry theoretical formulation . We have also proposed that all particles of the standard model, including all bosons, fermion particles and the proposed space particles (SP), are made of these two BEP.

The Two Basic Energy Particles, Their Nature And Characteristics

a) Strings of Energy (for short: “strings”, or “energy”, or “energy clouds”),

  • They are wavey spring-like particles made from identically vibrating energy with left handed or right handed helicities (spins) continuously moving at the speed of light. Each type of helicity is equal to the ½ spin associated with the different types of fermion particles. The axis of their spins are free to take any orientation.
  • - Strings with different helicities exhibit coupling attraction. We have termed “Coupling Force (CF)”. Coupled strings exhibit an integer spin (spin=1) as in the case of different bosons. The act of coupling involves two spring like wave strings of energy with different helicities getting intertwined, while the act of decoupling is when they are stretched out and separated by the decoupling force, caused by the electrostatic attraction applied by the singularities residing at the nuclei of the fermion and space particles (SP).
  • - A number of strings of both helicities join together to form a bundle of energy. Different numbers of these bundles form the different photons. Excited fermion particles emits strings of energy with different helictites. They get coupled together forming the photons and gluons.
  • - Once photons or gluons get in proximity to fermion particles with different helicities, they decouple leading to their split and absorption by the energy clouds of these particles.
  • - The coupling and decoupling forces also explain how virtual photons and gravitons are emitted and absorbed by the SP.
  • - Strings of single helicity form the energy clouds of the fermion particles, and strings of both helictites form the energy clouds of the SP and the various bosons.
  • - The strings of energy represent all the observed energy in the universe and associated with all the planck measurements. The wave functions of the fermion and space particles are fully managed and controlled by the kinetic energy of the singularities and their electrostatic force.
  • b) The Singularities
  • In this manuscript we have proposed the existence of the elusive singularities. Most of the current conundrums in physics emanate from their absence in the various models dealing with the working of the universe. The key characteristics of the singularities are:
  • - Point-like energy particles
  • They are unobservable, massless, point-like energy particles spinning clockwise (CW) or anticlockwise (ACW) at the constant speed of light. Their continuous spin gives them the freedom or independence from joining each other. The axes of their spins are free to take any vector orientation.
  • - Electric charges
  • The directions of their spins within the nuclei of the fermion and space particles account for the intrinsic positive and negative charges of relevant particles. Paired singularities, with different spin directions, add up to zero electric charge. Singularities with the same spin direction repulse each other, while those with opposite directions attract each other. We term this force, for consistency with current literature,“Electrostatic Force (EF)”.
  • - Centripetal Force
  • The singularities’ spins create the Centripetal Force which is fundamental for many of the quantum mechanical activities of the universe. The axes of their orientations are subject to the Gyroscopic effect, when they interact with or disturbed by other singularities. The associated centrifugal outward directed force presses the SP against each other forming the extremely fine fabric or network of finite foams-like bubbles of energy known as the “vacuum” at rest state geometry. For short we use VSP to denote Vacuum space particles, and FSP to denote field space particles.
  • - Decoupling Force
  • Singularities which are spinning ACW attract strings with left handed helicity, and those spinning CW attract strings with right handed helicity, leading to the creation of the Decoupling Force.
  • - Conservation of singularities
  • A law for the conservation of singularities has been proposed in line with the conservation of charge. This means that fermion particles don’t get completely annihilated into pure energy but always end up with lighter fermion particles, like the almost massless neutrinos and antineutrinos, which are difficult to detect. This is supported by the reported observation of a relatively higher number of neutrinos and antineutrinos found around nuclear power stations.
  • - The centripetal force (Fc or Fc )
  • The centripetal force generated by the singularities is: Fc= mc2/r, (where Fc= the constant centripetal force resulting of the spinning of a given number of singularities at the speed of light, m = mass of the orbiting energy strings, E, managed and controlled by the singularities, c= speed of light, and r = the radius of the orbiting energy cloud of a space particle). The centripetal force law of a space particle can then be reduced to Fc= E/r.
  • - Speed of spinning bubbles of energy (Spinning angular momentum, Sam)
  • Since the energy orbiting the singularities is the constant speed of light, c, then the spinning speed, Sam= c/(2π r). Since Fc= E/r then. Sam= c Fc/ (2π E). As “c Fc/ (2π” is a constant value, then the speed of the spinning bubbles of energy is in reverse ratio to the energy of the field space particles and to their radii. This is a key equation in determining the strength of force fields. For the space particles to turn into force fields’ spinning bubbles of energy their singularities’ spinning axes need to align in specific directions to produce the aimed orientations.
  • - Positions and vector orientations
  • The different positions and vector orientations of the space particles’ singularities are important in determining the vector orientations of the force fields. In case of gravitational fields, the singularities spinning orientations would be toward the centre of the mass. In case of electromagnetic fields the singularities have multiple orientations determined by the relative positions and strengths of moving charged particles responsible for the generation of specific field.
  • - Drivers of the waves functions
  • Positions of the singularities within the nuclei of the fermion particles determine the different geometry of their wave functions. The singularities reset their interaction with each other by getting closer together to reboot their activities in readiness to restart another set of interactions as part of the universe symmetry conservation. The reset is observed as a collapse of the wave function of the relevant fermion particle. This reset is key to explaining the entanglement conundrum. It is an error correction process of the universe information.
  • - The singularities are found in groups of six or multiple thereof as in the case of the SP and the second and third generations fermion particles. The number “Six” is the unit of measurement when it comes to the singularities. So the electron charge of -1 means it has 6 anti clockwise singularities. The up quarks +⅔ charge means it has 5 CW and 1 ACW singularities ((+5–1)/6=+⅔). The down quark has 2 CW and 4 ACW singularities giving -⅓ charge.
  • - Creation of Volume and Mass.
  • The interaction of the singularities’ fermion particles with the vacuum SP, lead. to the formation of their quantum fields, the hadrons confinements, the additional micro dimensions, the spatial volume, the relativistic mass and micro gravity.
  • - Digital Information. The two types of the singularities’ spin represent the bits (the zeros and ones) used by the universe digital information to determine the type of subatomic particles. They play key roles in giving the subatomic particles their digital codes’ types. They are also very important in determining other aspects of the subatomic particles quantum states.
  • c) Space Particles (SP).
  • The SP are foam-like bubbles of energy pressed into hexagon geometry by the centrifugal force of their singularities. In this manuscript we have proposed that 12 singularities form the nuclei of a space particle. This makes the centripetal force of a space particle the most important constant of proportionality between its orbiting strings of energy and its radius (Fc=E/r). The relationships between the intrinsic forces of the two BEP are behind the three constants that define free space, namely:
  • The electric constant (vacuum permittivity) which defines the capacity of the vacuum to permit electric field lines, or using our terminology, the measure of the response of the SP singularities to realign their positions in response to the presence of net fermion particles’ charge.
  • The magnetic constant or the vacuum permeability measures the influence of the vacuum on the production of the magnetic flux lines from a moving electric charge. Using our terminology it is a measure of the responses of the magnetic fields’ singularities to the changing positions of electric fields’ singularities.
  • The vacuum impedance constant. It is the measure of the opposition to the flow of an alternating current in free space. It relates to the magnitude of the electric field strength to the magnitude of the magnetic fields for electromagnetic radiation traveling through free space. It is equal to the product of the vacuum permeability and the speed of light.
  • The interaction between the intrinsic forces of the BEP are behind all the known constants of electromagnetism. These also include, Coulomb’s proportionality constant which is a derivative of the electrostatic constant. The fine structure constant characterizes the strength of electromagnetic interactions between elementary charged particles,i.e. the strength of the electrostatic attraction and repulsion forces of the singularities which give the fermion particles their net electric charges.
  • The SP in their geometrical rest state would be termed as Vacuum Space Particles or VSP for short. The assumed vacuum has all of the properties that a particle may have such as spin, energy, magnetic moments, etc. On average, these properties cancel out due to the equal number of singularities which are spinning CW & ACW, and the equal number of strings with left handed and right handed helicities. This is what constitutes the vacuum at its “rest state geometry” and gives the perception of a vacuum that is “empty”. The vacuum exhibits zero charge and zero spin. These are similar to the characteristics associated with the elusive Higgs boson particles. Using the data of the standard model, then we speculate that the mass of a space particle would be 125.09 GeV/c2 similar to that of a Higgs boson particle. We have proposed that every two SP form the fermion particles of a hydrogen atom, i.e. two up quarks and one down quark forming the proton plus an orbiting electron. The total mass of these 4 fermion particles is 10.111MeV/c2. This means that when these four fermion particles are formed from two SP, about 99.6% of their energy clouds is converted to photons. It also means that as the fermion particles interact with the adjacent VSP, they borrow from them about 99% of the protons’ energy to from their confinements and the gluons. It is this process of borrowing energy from the VSP which leads to the creation of their gravitational flux lines.

d) Formation of fields

When VSP are disturbed by fermion particles their energy level changes leading to changes in their geometry. These changes in the VSP geometry turn them into FSP. Different fields are mere manifestations of the different disturbances in the geometry of the SP. The FSP turn into spinning bubbles of energy with different speed and specific vector orientation determined by the types of disturbances. Fields are quantized.

The varying spins angular momentum of the energy cloud of the FSP are determined by the relationship Sam= c/2π r (or Sam= c Fc/ 2π E) . In case of FSP, their E & r would have different micro measurements to those associated with VSP. If we define the unit of measuring time as a rotation of the strings of energy around the singularities of a space particle, tc, then tc= (2π r)/ c. As “r” is variable, then time’s unit of measurement would also be variable, hence the observed time dilation. These equations give us the unit of measuring space micro time, tc= 1/Sam, hence time changes with the change in its basic unit of measurement.

As r approaches zero at the black hole level, the current laws of physics wouldn’t work as they would give zeros or infinite values.

Steps of Creating the Gravitational Force

Now let us use the above fundamental postulations to visualize the process of creating the gravitational force.

a) Creation of Mass and its Gravitational Flux Lines (GFL).

The creation of relativistic mass starts with the creation of the relevant quantum fields of fermion particles such as electrons and quarks. Most of the hadrons’ mass is due to the borrowed energy from the VSP. The more than 99% of the borrowed energy to form the confinements and the gluons turn the adjacent VSP (due to the reduced energy and their reduced spinning angular momentums’ radii) to spinning bubbles of energy which make up the limited number of the gravitational flux lines (GFL) associated with the creation of each planck mass. Current literature rationalize that by saying the gravitational fields have negative energy when they try to explain gravitational potential energy.

Einstein expressed this process by saying that the changes in local spacetime curvature associated with local energy and momentum lead to increase in stress-energy tensor density of flux and momentum.

According to our thought experiments, the change in local curvatures are due to the gravitational FSP having lower radii than those associated with VSP. This drop in the local SP radii lead to increase in their spinning angular momentum in line with the law Sam= c/(2π r) and their vector orientations toward the centre of the mass, hence the formation of the gravitational flux lines.

b) Creation and Roles of the Gravitons

According the law of proportionality Fc= E/ r, the loss of energy by the adjacent VSP lead to changes in their geometry. These changes lead to the emission and absorption of the gravitons due to the coupling and decoupling forces until the relevant gravitational flux lines are formed.

c) Gravitational Flux Lines (GFL)

The creation of a planck mass is the trigger for the creation of the GFL, which are made of spinning quantum bubbles of energy with increasing speed as they approach the centre of the relevant mass. These spin networks are behind the quantized vector flux lines acting as vertically oriented moving belts toward the centre of the mass at accelerating speed. This is what we observe as the gravitational pull. In case of gravity, the gravitational flux lines are open ended extending into the fabric of space, reducing in strength with the square distance.

d) Gravitational Constant

It is the Gravitational Force Between Two Objects with a Planck Mass Each.

Limited number of gravitational flux lines are created by a planck mass. This planck gravitational force is equivalent to the square root of the gravitational constant (G1/2).

Below are the steps to derive the gravitational Constant:

Fc= mc2/r, = E/r. As we have argued the planck measurements are much larger than the basic measurements associated with VSP. If we assume that the mass of thousands of SP plus some fermion particles are equivalent to one planck mass, then the centripetal force law associated with the total particles would be written as ΣFc= ΣE/ Σr or Fcp=Ep/ lp.

  • The creation of a planck mass (mp) means that Ep amount of energy has been borrowed from the vacuum leading to the creation of its planck gravitational field.
  • As all SP have the same number of singularities, then the centripetal force (kinetic energy) generated by all VSP and FSP would be a constant proportionality value. However energy is borrowed in the process of creating the planck mass, the FSP radii and energy would lead to increase in their spinning angular momentum in line with the law Sam= c/ 2π r. The nearer the flux line to the centre of the mass the greater the spinning angular momentum.
  • The created gravitational constant (field) associated with each mp is the root square of the centripetal force of the participating fermion and space particles involved in creating the planck mass multiplied by the planck length over the created planck mass.
  • G1/2= the (Fcp1/2 ) x lp/ mp. This gives us a constant value, and the gravitational force between two objects with planck mass would also be a constant value and denoted as G= Fcpx l2p/ mp2.
  • Since ℏc= Ep.lp (ℏ is the reduced planck constant) and Fcp= Ep/ lp , then we find G = ℏc/ mp2 and this in line with current literature.

e) Gravitational Force Between Two Objects.

The gravitational force between two objects = G (m1x m2)/r2. Where r is the distance between the centre of the mass of any two objects.

The gravitational flux lines of each object are like moving belts powered by its own accelerating quantum spin loops of bubbles of energy oriented toward its centre. The bigger the object the greater their acceleration as gravity is a cumulative force. For Earth the acceleration rate is 9.8m/ S2.

The object with higher acceleration constant (g) will always attract objects with a lower acceleration if they are in a free fall state. This is like each planck mass of the smaller object gets in the down lift (gravitational flux lines) of the bigger mass. This is what make all objects with different mass drop at the same rate in vacuum.

As gravity is a cumulative force, then the greater the number of planck mass units that make up the object the greater its gravitational field density. Although Earth has greater acceleration per square second than the moon, the latter gravitational flux lines still have attraction on all objects on earth. The gravitational attraction force of the moon on any object on Earth is 1.62 m/S2 irrespective of their mass or the mass of Earth.

If two objects flux lines attractions are exerting joined effort on another object, their gravitational attractions will be combined. For example, in case of total eclipse of the Sun by the Moon, the combined gravitational effect of the two bodies on Earth will the highest, since the Moon and the Sun gravitational flux lines get fully combined due to their vertical geometry relative to Earth. If they pull in different directions then their net effect will be reduced.

f) Reduction of Gravity with Distance

Gravitational flux lines spread out as they move away from the center of the gravitational fields. With each planck length move away from the center of the mass, the density and spin of the bubbles of energy reduces proportionately with square distance. This leads to the reduction in the gravitational force in reverse ratio to the square distance from the centre. The gravitational flux lines’ density and the oriented spin of the FSP toward the centre of the mass becomes negligible with large distances.

g) Photons’ Wavelengths and Gravity

According to current literature, “the Doppler effect occurs when an object that is emitting light is in motion with respect to the observer. If the object is moving towards the observer the light is ``compressed’’, meaning that the wavelength of the light becomes smaller. Smaller wavelength means bluer light, so we say the object is blueshifted. If the object is moving away from the observer the light is ``expanded’’, the wavelength is increased or redshifted. Notice that the speed of light does not change, only the wavelength. It is a basic premise of the theory of relativity that the velocity of light never changes regardless of the motion of the observer.”

According to our thought experiments, the gravitational fields of massive objects create field space particles with different radii. Those nearer to the centre of the mass would have shorter radii. As a supernova star collapses, part of its energy rushes at a high speed toward the center of the newly forming neutron star. The space particles left behind would have larger radius than those in the direction of its center. It is this phenomenon which lead to the redshift and not the acceleration of the whole neutron star away from an observer. We have proposed that the photons’ wavelengths are affected by the radii of the space particles they pass through. So the photons accelerate to the central of a large mass would experience blue shift while those moving away would experience redshift. Some studies have reached the tentative conclusion that some observed supernovae are speeding away at a faster rate than the speed of light based on the level of the calculated redshifts. However according to our type of thinking, the conclusion would only mean that those heavenly bodies associated with greater redshifts must have greater masses.

h) Gravitational time dilation

According to current literature, “Gravitational time dilation is a form of time dilation, an actual difference of elapsed time between two events as measured by observers situated at varying distances from a gravitating mass. The higher the gravitational potential (the farther the clock is from the source of gravitation), the faster time passes. Albert Einstein originally predicted this effect in his theory of relativity and it has since been confirmed by tests of general relativity. This has been demonstrated by noting that atomic clocks at different altitudes (and thus different gravitational potential) will eventually show different times. The effects detected in such Earth-bound experiments are extremely small, with differences being measured in nanoseconds. Relative to Earth’s age in billions of years, Earth’s core is effectively 2.5 years younger than its surface. Demonstrating larger effects would require greater distances from the Earth or a larger gravitational source.”

According to our thought experiments, time dilation can be explained by similar methodology to that used in explaining the blueshift and redshift phenomena in paragraph g above.

Time dilation occurs as we have regarded the time micro unit of measurement as being the time it takes for the energy cloud of. space particle to complete an orbit around its singularities. since we have defined cosmic micro time, tc, is = 2π r/ c and since the value of r experience length contraction toward the centre of the mass, then the basic unit of time would be shorter. This would also be the case if we use planck measurements. Planck time is equal to planck distance divided by the speed of light, in vacuum, tp= lp/c. In case of a massive object the gravitational field space particles will have noticeably shorter radii than those of the vacuum space particles. This shorter unit of measuring time at at the centre of Earth would lead to the observation that time is moving slower. This must also mean that our measurement of time devices are reflecting the length contracted radii of the SP where the instruments operate.

Time dilations could also be due to differences in relative acceleration and can be explained by the same mechanism. Here again there are relative differences in the geometry of the localized fabric of space between a moving object and an observer on Earth. The difference in geometry can be explained as follows:

a) As objects move, the fermion particles making up the objects interact with new SP they accelerate through. This leads to returning the borrowed energy from the SP left behind and borrowing new energy from the area of space passing through.

b) Borrowed energy from the immediate localized area need the activities of the gravitons to compensate the shortfall in energy, a process which leads to the creation of the gravitational flux lines associated with the moving mass.

c) The gravitons do their jobs in creating the gravitational flux lines at the speed of light. So the greater the acceleration the longer it will take for the energy to reach localized SP of the moving objects, hence the greater the distortion in their geometry. This causes the radii of the localized SP to be in reverse ratio to the rate of acceleration and the mass of the moving object according to the proposed centripetal force law of proportionality Fc= E/r.

An astronaut in a space station would experience two types of time dilations. He would age faster relative to an observer on the surface of Earth as far as the gravitational time dilation principle is concerned, as the radii of the SP in a space station are longer, i.e. equivalent to the vacuum measurements. However, there is another and stronger factor affecting his units of measuring time. This is the “relative velocity time dilation”. The astronaut moving at great velocity from an observer on Earth would experience slower aging. This is due to the effect of “relative velocity” time dilations being greater than the opposite effect of gravitational time dilation

An astronaut in a space station would experience two types of time dilations. He would age faster than on the surface of Earth as far as the gravitational time dilation principle is concerned, as the radii of the SP are longer, i.e. equivalent to the vacuum measurements. However, there is another factor affecting his time, this is known as “relative velocity time dilation”.

i) Gravitational Acceleration

The gravitational flux lines form the gravitational field (also called gravitational acceleration, g), which is a vector field. Gravitational force is a cumulative force as more flux lines are added to form the gravitational field. The density of the flux lines associated with each mass determines its gravitational acceleration.

Therefore gravitational acceleration toward the centre of a mass is determined by both the increase in number and speed of the spinning bubbles of energy, the gravitational field space particles (FSP), per planck square area.

The spinning speed of the bubbles of energy = c/ 2π r, where r is the radius. The radii contracts as as we approach the centre of the mass leading to a higher spin, hence the higher acceleration.

For example Earth gravitational acceleration constant is 9.8 m.s2. The moon acceleration constant is about 16 % of that, due to its lower mass relative to Earth.

In conclusion the singularities and their centripetal force is key to many laws of physics including gravity. The gravitons’ roles are restricted to the creation of spin networks, by redistributing the energy of the vacuum in the process of creating the gravitational flux lines. The change in the geometry of the VSP leads to vector orientations of the spin of the FSP toward the centre of the mass. So the gravitational force is not an act of “pushing” or “pulling” but an “act of being on accelerating gravitational flux lines powered spinning network of quantum bubbles of energy vertically oriented toward the center of the mass”. For consistency with current literature we will continue to describe it as gravitational attractions between two objects.

j) Tidal force

According to current literature,the tidal force is an apparent force that stretches a body towards the center of mass of another body due to a gradient (difference in strength) in gravitational field from the other body. This phenomenon is responsible for diverse observations like tides, tidal locking, breaking apart of celestial bodies and formation of ring systems within Roche limit, and in extreme cases, spaghettification of objects. It arises because the gravitational force exerted on one body by another is not constant across its parts: the nearest side is attracted more strongly than the farthest side. It is this difference that causes a body to get stretched. Thus, the tidal force is also known as the differential force, as well as a secondary effect of the gravitational force.

According to our fresh thinking on gravity, the gravitational flux lines are powered by spinning bubbles of energy with increasing speed toward the centre of their mass. This means that objects within a gravitational field of a massive object get stretched toward its centre as they experience relatively faster acceleration in comparison with their parts which are further away.

k) Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)

According to current literature, gravitational energy is the potential energy a body with mass has in relation to another massive object due to gravity. Gravitational energy is dependent on the masses of two bodies, their distance apart and the gravitational constant (G).

According to Newtonian formula, the potential energy of the accelerating body with respect to the stationary mass can be reduced to:

E= mgh (where E is the potential energy, m is mass and h is the vertical distance from the massive object). In this case the formula treats the potential energy as a positive quantity.

In classical mechanics, two or more masses always have a gravitational potential. Conservation of energy requires that this gravitational field energy is always negative.The gravitational potential energy is the potential energy an object has because it is within a gravitational field.

According to our above explanation of gravity, there is no such thing as negative energy. The gravitational potential energy can be explained as follows:

i) Gravitational fields are formed due to drop in energy equivalent to that used in creating the relevant mass. This is regarded as the negative energy associated with gravitational fields. It is part of conservation of total energy law.

ii) For example, when an object enters the gravitational field of Earth ( which must be smaller than Earth mass), its gravitational field density would be lower than that of Earth. This means each of it’s FSP have more energy than that of Earth FSP. The gravitational field of the falling object starts to lose some of its energy which gets converted to kinetic energy. Once a falling object reaches Earth’s surface, its gravitational field space particles will have the same (reduced) energy level.

iii) The roles of the coupling force is in the emission of gravitons which are released as kinetic energy. The opposite takes place, when the kinetic energy is used to lift an object. The kinetic energy gets converted to potential energy. Referring to the key centripetal force law of proportionality, Fc= E/r, E reduced as object falls and increases as objects raised.

l) Gravitational Waves.

Gravitational waves are disturbance in the fabric of spacetime which gets generated by accelerating large mass and propagate as waves outward from their source at the speed of light.

According to our hypothesis, as an accelerating large mass moves through space, the vacuum SP newly interacting with would lose energy and experience changes to their geometry, while those left behind the accelerating object gain back the energy given earlier and return toward their rest state geometry. This fast shifting geometry, at a large scale, causes disturbances in the fabric of space observed as gravitational waves. It is possible to detect a gravitational wave with two laser beams, perpendicular to one another, producing an interference pattern. What makes the detection difficult is that the effects of a passing gravitational wave are extraordinarily tiny as they drop with distance. Very high sensitivity is needed to detect them. But this is what LIGO does, and it has reliably detected several gravitational wave events since 2016.

m) Unification of Gravitational and Electromagnetic Forces

The above thoughts experiments confirm the similarity between these two forces. The gravitons and virtual photons are both generated by the coupling and decoupling of strings of energy of SP, leading to their emission and absorption. This lead to the creation of the relevant flux lines responsible for the specific force fields. Their roles are restricted to the creation of the relevant flux lines. They are not force carriers but Force Fields builders.

While gravitational flux lines are always made of quantum spinning loops moving away from the centre of the mass, the electromagnetic fields are made up of electromagnetic flux lines with vector orientations determined by the electrostatic attraction and repulsion forces of the charged particles responsible for their creation. The flux lines of the magnetic field density is determined by the applied kinetic energy of the magnet and the distance between the magnetic poles. The flux lines don’t spread out into space as in the case of gravity, but they are restricted between the two magnetic poles. This explains the relative strength of the magnetic force in comparison to gravitational force.

Our postulations unify all the four forces while Einstein work proposed the unification of general relativity (gravity) and electromagnetism (as these were the only two forces known to exist at that time).

Reconciling the new thinking with current theories.

The above explanation is based on the proposed BEP and their associated fundamental forces highlighted in the above introduction. This approach supports some aspects of the semiclassical gravity theory, as it involves the presence of the moving force toward the centre of the mass in addition to the quantum mechanical activities of the gravitons. It also describes the vacuum in line with many aspects of the loop quantum gravity theory. It links quantum mechanics and general relativity by showing how the gravitons’ quantum mechanical activities lead to changes in the geometry of the fabric of space.

The above explanation also shows the source of the gravitational acceleration which plays key role in explaining gravity as the spinning loop networks which increase in density and speed of spin toward the centre of the mass. The proposed approach also explains the gravitational fields in terms of gravitational flux lines similar to Gauss’s law of gravity.

The Strings theory has been recognized in this work through the process of coupling and decoupling of the strings of energy which leads to the emissions and absorptions of the gravitons, which are responsible for reshaping the geometry of the gravitational field and the creation of the spinning loop networks.

This explanation is also in line with the “stress — energy tensor” which is the source of the gravitational field in the Einstein field equations of general relativity, just as mass density is the source of gravitational fields in Newtonian gravity. Using our above explanation, we are in effect saying that the creation of mass triggers the change in the geometry of the VSP, hence the creation of the Newtonian field of gravity. The drop in the VSP energy means that the gravitational field space particles would have reduced radii with increased spinning angular momentum, hence the expression by Einstein of “stress-energy-tensor”.

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