The Philosophy of Technology: Tracing its Origins from Ancient Greece to the Modern Era

19 min readApr 2, 2023

Dive into the world of the philosophy of technology as we explore its key thinkers and ideas from Ancient Greece to the present day. Discover the evolving relationship between humans and technology throughout history.

The philosophy of technology is an interdisciplinary field that seeks to understand the nature of technology, its development, and its impact on human society and culture.

This branch of philosophy has evolved significantly throughout history, with key thinkers and ideas shaping its development from Ancient Greece to the present day.

In this piece, I will cover the origins of the philosophy of technology, discuss prominent philosophers and their contributions, and touch upon the major theories that have arisen over time.

Ancient Greek Contributions to the Philosophy of Technology

The Ancient Greek period laid the foundations for the philosophy of technology, as thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle explored the role of technology in society and its impact on human life. Their reflections on technology were rooted in a broader inquiry into human knowledge, values, and the natural world. In this section, we will discuss the Ancient Greek perspectives on technology and their influence on later philosophical thought.

Technê and Epistêmê

In Ancient Greek thought, the concept of technê referred to the skill or art of craftsmanship, which involved the creation or manipulation of objects for a particular purpose. This concept was closely related to epistêmê, which referred to scientific or theoretical knowledge. While technê focused on practical know-how and the ability to produce tangible results, epistêmê emphasised the pursuit of abstract knowledge and understanding.¹

Socrates (469–399 BC)

Socrates, one of the most influential philosophers in Western history, expressed scepticism about the value of technology. Although he acknowledged that technology could be beneficial, he believed that an overemphasis on material progress could distract people from the pursuit of wisdom and virtue. Socrates argued that human well-being should be the primary focus of society and that technology should be used responsibly to support this goal.¹

Plato (427–347 BC)

Plato, a student of Socrates, shared his teacher’s concerns about the potential negative effects of technology on society. In his dialogue ‘Phaedrus’, Plato criticised the invention of writing as a threat to genuine knowledge and understanding, arguing that it would lead to forgetfulness and superficial learning. He also emphasised the importance of using technology in moderation, warning that overreliance on technology could lead to moral decay and the erosion of human values.²

Aristotle (384–322 BC)

Aristotle, Plato’s most famous student, took a more balanced approach to technology. He distinguished between natural objects, which were created by nature, and artificial objects, which were produced by human skill and craftsmanship (technê). Aristotle believed that technology could be used for both good and ill, depending on the intentions of its users. He also recognised the importance of technological innovation in improving human life and contributing to the development of society.³

Nature, Craftsmanship, and the Role of Technology

The Ancient Greeks’ reflections on technology were closely linked to their understanding of nature and the role of craftsmanship in society. They believed that technology was an extension of human creativity and skill and that it had the potential to bring about positive change. However, they also recognised the potential dangers of technology, particularly when it was misused or pursued at the expense of moral and intellectual development.

Technological Determinism: A Deeper Look

Technological determinism is a theory that posits technology as the primary driver of social and cultural change.

According to this perspective, technological innovations have a significant impact on society, often in ways that are unintended or unforeseen. This impact is thought to be so powerful that it can shape social structures, human behaviour, and even the course of history.

The theory of technological determinism is grounded in the belief that technology is an autonomous force independent of human control or intervention. This section will delve deeper into the key aspects of technological determinism and its main proponents.

Karl Marx (1818–1883)

Although not a technological determinist in the strictest sense, Karl Marx recognised the importance of technology in shaping society and driving historical change.

In his historical materialist approach, Marx posited that the ‘forces of production’ (including technology) influence social relations and ultimately determine the structure of society.⁴

Marx believed that the development of technology would eventually lead to the collapse of capitalism and the emergence of a more egalitarian society.

Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929)

American economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen emphasised the influence of technology on economic and social systems. Veblen argued that technological advancements drive changes in social institutions, shaping the way societies are organised and how they function. In his book ‘The Theory of the Leisure Class’, Veblen explored the impact of industrialisation on social norms, particularly the emergence of conspicuous consumption and status-seeking behaviour.⁵

Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980)

Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan is perhaps one of the most well-known proponents of technological determinism.

McLuhan argued that different media technologies have a profound impact on human perception, cognition, and social organisation.

In his famous work Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, McLuhan posited that ‘the medium is the message’, suggesting that the nature of the medium itself shapes the way information is transmitted and understood.⁶ He further contended that the emergence of electronic media, such as television and the internet, would create a ‘global village’ characterised by increased interconnectivity and the erosion of traditional social boundaries.

Criticisms of Technological Determinism

Technological determinism has been criticised for its reductionist approach, which tends to oversimplify the complex relationship between technology and society.

Critics argue that this perspective disregards the role of social, political, and economic factors in shaping the development and diffusion of technology. They also contend that technological determinism underestimates human agency, implying that individuals and societies are powerless to control or influence the course of technological development.²

In response to these criticisms, alternative theories have emerged, such as social constructivism and actor-network theory, which emphasise the reciprocal relationship between technology and society. These approaches argue that technology is not an autonomous force but is instead shaped by human intentions, social dynamics, and cultural contexts.³

Social Constructivism: A Comprehensive Overview

Social constructivism is a theoretical approach that emphasises the role of social and cultural factors in shaping the development, adoption, and impact of technology.

Contrary to the perspective of technological determinism, which posits technology as an autonomous force driving social change, social constructivism argues that technology is a product of human intentions, social circumstances, and cultural contexts.

This section will provide a comprehensive overview of social constructivism, its key proponents, and its implications for the understanding of technology and society.

Thomas Hughes (1923–2014)

American historian of technology Thomas Hughes contributed significantly to the social constructivist perspective through his work on the development of large technological systems. In his book Networks of Power, Hughes analysed the growth of electrical power systems in the United States, England, and Germany, demonstrating how social, political, and economic factors influenced the design and implementation of these systems.⁷

Hughes’ work underlined the importance of considering the broader social context when examining the development and impact of technology.

Wiebe Bijker (b. 1951) and Trevor Pinch (b. 1952)

Dutch sociologist Wiebe Bijker and British sociologist Trevor Pinch are key figures in the development of the social constructivist approach to technology.

Together, they developed the Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) framework, which provides a systematic method for analysing the social factors that shape the design, development, and use of technology.³ The SCOT framework focuses on the concept of ‘interpretive flexibility’, which suggests that technologies are open to multiple interpretations and uses, depending on the social groups involved in their development and adoption.

Bijker and Pinch’s influential work, The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts, introduced the SCOT framework through a series of case studies, including the development of the bicycle and the evolution of the air pump. These case studies illustrated how different social groups shaped the design and use of these technologies based on their values, interests, and expectations.⁸

Implications of Social Constructivism

The social constructivist approach has several important implications for the understanding of technology and society:

Technology is not an autonomous force: Social constructivism emphasises that technologies are not independent drivers of social change but are instead shaped by social dynamics and cultural contexts.
Technology embodies values and interests: Social constructivism highlights that technologies are not neutral but reflect the values, interests, and expectations of the social groups involved in their development and use.
Users play an active role in shaping technology: Social constructivism argues that users are not passive recipients of technology but actively contribute to its design, development, and adoption.
Technological development is a negotiated process: Social constructivism suggests that the development of technology involves negotiation and consensus-building among various social groups, each with their own interpretations, values, and interests.

By emphasising the role of social and cultural factors in shaping technology, social constructivism provides a more nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between technology and society.

This perspective helps to highlight the importance of considering the diverse needs, values, and expectations of different social groups when developing and implementing new technologies. It also underscores the potential for technology to be adapted, modified, or reinterpreted to serve various purposes or address specific social concerns.

In this way, social constructivism offers valuable insights for policymakers, engineers, and technology users as they navigate the ever-evolving landscape of technological innovation and its impact on society.

Instrumentalism and Determinism: Two Perspectives on Technology

Instrumentalism and determinism represent two distinct perspectives on technology within the philosophy of technology.

Both views attempt to explain the relationship between technology and society, focusing on the role technology plays in shaping human behaviour, social structures, and cultural values.

This section will elaborate on these perspectives and compare their key assumptions and implications for understanding the impact of technology on society.

Instrumentalism

Instrumentalism is a perspective that views technology as a neutral tool or means to achieve specific human goals or purposes. According to instrumentalism, humans create and use technologies to solve problems, improve living conditions, or increase efficiency. This perspective emphasises that technology is inherently neutral, as its impact on society depends solely on the intentions and actions of its users.⁹

One of the implications of instrumentalism is that social and moral responsibility lies with technology users rather than with the technology itself. Instrumentalism suggests that if technology has negative consequences or unintended side effects, these outcomes result from human choices and actions, not from any inherent qualities of the technology.

Determinism

Determinism, particularly in the context of technological determinism, is a perspective that views technology as a powerful force driving social and cultural change. As previously discussed, technological determinism posits that technological innovations significantly impact society, often in unintended or unforeseen ways. Proponents of this view argue that technology has the capacity to shape social structures, human behaviour, and even the course of history independently of human control or intervention.¹⁰

One of the implications of determinism is that technology carries embedded values and power dynamics, which can perpetuate social inequalities and influence human behaviour. Determinism challenges the notion of technology as a neutral force, asserting that technological development can have far-reaching and transformative consequences on society.

Comparing Instrumentalism and Determinism

The instrumentalist and determinist perspectives offer contrasting views on the relationship between technology and society:

Neutrality of technology: Instrumentalism asserts that technology is inherently neutral and only acquires values or social implications based on how it is used, whereas determinism contends that technology embodies values and has the potential to drive social change.
Human agency: Instrumentalism emphasises human agency in shaping the impact of technology, while determinism suggests that technology can independently influence society and human behaviour.
Responsibility: Instrumentalism places responsibility for the consequences of technology on its users, while determinism highlights the role of technology itself in shaping social outcomes.

While both instrumentalism and determinism offer valuable insights into the role of technology in society, they tend to oversimplify the complex relationship between technology and human behaviour.

Alternative theories, such as social constructivism, attempt to bridge the gap between these perspectives by emphasising the reciprocal relationship between technology and society, as well as the importance of social and cultural factors in shaping technological development and use.⁸

Key Proponents of the Philosophy of Technology

In the following section, I’ll delve into the backgrounds and beliefs of some of the key proponents of the philosophy of technology.

Martin Heidegger: Philosophy of Technology and the Question of Being

Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) was a German philosopher known for his groundbreaking work in existentialism, phenomenology, and the philosophy of technology. Heidegger’s thoughts on technology, primarily expressed in his essay The Question Concerning Technology, have had a significant impact on the field of philosophy of technology and continue to shape contemporary debates on the nature and implications of technological development.¹¹

This section will elaborate on Heidegger’s key ideas related to the philosophy of technology, focusing on his concepts of Being, enframing, and the essence of technology.

Being and Technology

Central to Heidegger’s philosophy is the concept of Being, which refers to the fundamental nature of existence. Heidegger believed that the question of Being had been neglected in Western metaphysics, and his work sought to reorient philosophy toward this foundational question.

Heidegger’s examination of technology was an extension of his exploration of Being, as he considered technology to be a manifestation of human understanding and engagement with the world.

Enframing (Gestell)

Heidegger introduced the concept of ‘enframing’ (Gestell in German) to describe the essence of modern technology. According to Heidegger, enframing is a way of thinking and perceiving the world that reduces everything, including nature and human beings, to resources or ‘standing-reserve’ to be manipulated and controlled.¹¹ This instrumentalist perspective dominates modern technology, shaping the way humans interact with and understand their environment.

Heidegger argued that enframing has profound consequences for human existence, as it alienates individuals from their authentic connection to Being and the world. By treating everything as a resource to be exploited, enframing obscures the inherent value and significance of entities in their own right. Heidegger believed that overcoming enframing requires a fundamental shift in human thinking, which entails cultivating a more meditative and receptive relationship with the world.¹¹

The Essence of Technology

Heidegger maintained that the essence of technology is not merely a collection of tools or machines but a specific way of revealing or bringing forth entities into existence. In his view, technology is an expression of human understanding and interpretation of the world, which is deeply intertwined with the question of Being.¹¹

Heidegger argued that understanding the essence of technology could help humans develop a more authentic and meaningful relationship with their environment, moving beyond the instrumentalist perspective that characterises enframing. By contemplating the essence of technology, individuals may develop a sense of awe and wonder that allows them to reconnect with the world and their own Being.

Heidegger’s thoughts on technology have had a lasting impact on the philosophy of technology, inspiring subsequent thinkers to explore the ethical, existential, and ontological implications of technological development. His work continues to be a point of reference and debate for scholars grappling with the complex relationship between technology, human existence, and the nature of reality.

Jacques Ellul: The Technological Society and the Critique of Technological Determinism

Jacques Ellul (1912–1994) was a French philosopher, sociologist, and theologian who made significant contributions to the philosophy of technology.

His seminal work, The Technological Society, published in 1954, offers a profound critique of technological determinism and the pervasive influence of technology on society.¹²

Ellul’s work has had a lasting impact on the field, shaping debates on the ethical, social, and political implications of technological development.

This section will elaborate on Ellul’s key ideas related to the philosophy of technology, focusing on his concepts of the technological society, technique, and the autonomy of technology.

The Technological Society

In The Technological Society, Ellul examines the ways in which technology has come to dominate modern society, shaping social institutions, values, and human behaviour. He argues that modern society has become a ‘technological society’, characterised by an all-encompassing drive for efficiency, rationalisation, and control.

In this society, technology is not merely a collection of tools or machines but an organising principle that permeates every aspect of life.¹²

Technique

Central to Ellul’s analysis is the concept of ‘technique’, which he defines as the rational, methodical, and systematic pursuit of efficiency in every domain of human activity. Technique encompasses not only the material aspects of technology but also the organisational, procedural, and psychological dimensions that underlie modern society’s obsession with efficiency and control.¹²

Ellul contends that technique has become an autonomous force, driven by its own internal logic and detached from human values, intentions, or control. As a result, society is increasingly governed by the imperatives of technique, which prioritise efficiency and productivity above all else, often at the expense of individual freedom, social justice, or environmental sustainability.¹²

Autonomy of Technology

Ellul’s critique of technological determinism centres on the idea that technology has acquired a degree of autonomy that surpasses human control. In his view, the modern technological society is characterised by a self-reinforcing cycle of technological innovation, which in turn leads to the proliferation of new techniques, driving further technological development. This cycle perpetuates a sense of technological inevitability, which undermines human agency and ethical deliberation in the face of technological change.¹²

Ellul’s work serves as a powerful critique of the uncritical embrace of technology and a call for greater reflection on the ethical, social, and political implications of technological development. His insights into the nature of the technological society, the concept of technique, and the autonomy of technology continue to shape contemporary debates on the philosophy of technology, inspiring scholars to consider the complex relationship between technology, society, and human values.

Don Ihde: Embodied Technology and the Philosophy of Technology

Don Ihde (b. 1934) is an American philosopher who has made significant contributions to the philosophy of technology, particularly in the areas of phenomenology and human-technology relations. His work explores the complex ways in which technology mediates human experiences, perceptions, and interactions with the world.¹³

Ihde’s innovative approach, known as postphenomenology, combines insights from phenomenology, existentialism, and pragmatism to provide a richer understanding of the role of technology in shaping human existence.

This section will elaborate on Ihde’s key ideas related to the philosophy of technology, focusing on his concepts of embodied technology, human-technology relations, and technological mediation.

Embodied Technology

One of Ihde’s central ideas is the notion of ‘embodied technology’, which refers to the ways in which technology becomes integrated into the human body and perceptual experience.

Drawing on phenomenology, Ihde explores how technologies can extend, amplify, or transform human sensory experiences, enabling individuals to engage with the world in new and often unanticipated ways.¹³

Examples of embodied technology include eyeglasses, hearing aids, and prosthetic limbs, which directly modify or enhance human perceptual capacities.

Human-Technology Relations

Ihde identifies several distinct types of human-technology relations, which can be understood as different ways in which humans interact with, perceive, and experience technology:

Embodiment relations: These occur when technology is incorporated into the user’s bodily experience, as in the case of eyeglasses or hearing aids.
Hermeneutic relations: These involve interpreting or making sense of the world through the use of technology, such as reading a thermometer or using a map.
Alterity relations: These occur when technology is treated as an ‘other’ or separate entity, as in the case of interacting with a computer or a robot.
Background relations: These involve technologies that operate in the background of human experiences, such as air conditioning or ambient lighting.¹⁴

Technological Mediation

Ihde’s concept of technological mediation emphasises the role of technology in mediating human experiences, perceptions, and interactions with the world. According to Ihde, technologies are not neutral tools but active agents that shape and transform the human experience in complex and often subtle ways.

By examining the various ways in which technology mediates human existence, Ihde’s postphenomenological approach offers valuable insights into the ethical, social, and existential implications of technological development.¹³

Don Ihde’s work has had a profound impact on the philosophy of technology, inspiring subsequent thinkers to explore the embodied, experiential, and relational dimensions of technology. His insights into the nature of human-technology relations and the role of technology in mediating human experiences continue to inform contemporary debates on the ethical, social, and political implications of technological innovation.

Andrew Feenberg: Critical Theory of Technology and the Democratisation of Technological Development

Andrew Feenberg (b. 1943) is an American philosopher known for his influential work on the philosophy of technology, particularly his development of a critical theory of technology.

Drawing on the ideas of the Frankfurt School and social constructivism, Feenberg’s work challenges both technological determinism and instrumentalism, emphasising the need for a more democratic and inclusive approach to technological development.¹⁵

This section will elaborate on Feenberg’s key ideas related to the philosophy of technology, focusing on his concepts of rationality, critical theory of technology, and democratisation of technological development.

Rationality and Technology

Feenberg contends that dominant perspectives on technology, such as instrumentalism and technological determinism, are limited by their narrow understanding of rationality. These perspectives often equate rationality with efficiency, control, and predictability, which can result in a one-dimensional view of technology that ignores its social, cultural, and political dimensions.

Feenberg argues that a broader conception of rationality, which includes ethical, aesthetic, and democratic values, is necessary for a more comprehensive understanding of technology.¹⁵

Critical Theory of Technology

Feenberg’s critical theory of technology builds on the insights of social constructivism and the Frankfurt School to develop a more holistic and nuanced understanding of technology. His approach acknowledges the role of social and cultural factors in shaping technological development while also recognising the potential for technology to contribute to social change and human emancipation.¹⁶

Feenberg argues that technology is not inherently neutral or deterministic but rather embodies the values, interests, and power relations of the society in which it is developed.

By examining the social and political dimensions of technology, the critical theory of technology highlights the potential for alternative technological configurations that better align with democratic values and social justice.¹⁶

Democratisation of Technological Development

A key theme in Feenberg’s work is the need for the democratisation of technological development. He contends that technology should be subject to public debate and democratic decision-making, as this would allow for a more inclusive, ethical, and socially responsible approach to technological innovation.¹⁵

Feenberg’s critical theory of technology offers valuable insights for policymakers, engineers, and technology users as they navigate the complex relationship between technology and society. By emphasising the need for a more democratic and inclusive approach to technological development, Feenberg’s work contributes to ongoing debates on the ethical, social, and political implications of technology.

Andrew Feenberg’s contributions to the philosophy of technology have had a significant impact on the field, inspiring scholars to explore the social, cultural, and political dimensions of technology and to advocate for a more democratic and inclusive approach to technological development. His work continues to inform contemporary debates on the relationship between technology, society, and human values.

Ethics of Technology: Navigating the Moral Landscape of Technological Innovation

The ethics of technology is an area of inquiry within the philosophy of technology that examines the moral implications, responsibilities, and challenges associated with technological innovation and use. As technology continues to shape and transform every aspect of human life, questions regarding the ethical dimensions of technology have become increasingly important.

This section will elaborate on key issues and concerns in the ethics of technology, including privacy, artificial intelligence (AI), autonomous weapons, social justice, and environmental sustainability.

Privacy and Surveillance

Technological advancements in data collection, storage, and analysis have led to growing concerns about privacy and surveillance. Issues such as mass surveillance, data breaches, and the erosion of personal privacy raise ethical questions about the balance between individual rights, security, and corporate interests.¹⁷

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Ethics

The rapid development of AI and machine learning has raised a myriad of ethical questions, such as the moral status of AI, the potential consequences of automation on employment, the use of AI in decision-making processes, and the development of ethical guidelines for AI systems.¹⁸

These concerns highlight the need for a robust ethical framework to guide AI technologies’ design, development, and deployment.

Autonomous Weapons and Military Technology

The development of autonomous weapons and military technologies raises ethical questions about the use of force, the responsibility for harm caused by autonomous systems, and the potentially destabilising effects of advanced military technologies on global security.¹⁹

These concerns underscore the need for international cooperation and regulatory frameworks to govern the development and use of such technologies.

Social Justice and Technological Access

The uneven distribution of technological resources and access across the globe has led to concerns about social justice and digital divides. Ethical questions arise regarding the responsibility of governments, corporations, and individuals to ensure that technological benefits are equitably distributed and that technological advancements do not further marginalise vulnerable populations.²⁰

Environmental Sustainability

The impact of technology on the environment is a significant ethical concern, as technological development has often been associated with environmental degradation, resource depletion, and climate change. Ethical issues include the development of sustainable technologies, the potential trade-offs between economic growth and environmental protection, and the responsibility of individuals, organisations, and governments in promoting sustainable development.²¹

The ethics of technology encompasses a wide range of issues and concerns, reflecting the diverse ways in which technology intersects with human values, society, and the environment. As technological innovation continues to reshape the world, the ethics of technology will remain a crucial area of inquiry within the philosophy of technology, guiding policymakers, engineers, and technology users in navigating the complex moral landscape of the digital age.

Wrapping it up

The philosophy of technology has evolved significantly from its origins in Ancient Greece to the present day, with key thinkers and theories shaping our understanding of the human-technology relationship. From the debates between technological determinism and social constructivism to the influential works of Heidegger, Ellul, Ihde, and Feenberg, the field continues to grapple with the role and impact of technology in society.

As technology continues to develop at a rapid pace, the philosophy of technology will remain a crucial area of study, providing valuable insights into the complex relationship between humans and technology.

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Footnotes

¹ Parry, R. (2020). Episteme and Techne. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/episteme-techne

² Cooper, J. M. (1997). Plato: Complete Works (pp. 506–556). Hackett Publishing Company.

³ Barnes, B. (2014). The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation. Princeton University Press.

⁴ Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1848). The Communist Manifesto. J E Burghard.

⁵ Veblen, T. (1899). The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions. Macmillan.

⁶ McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. McGraw-Hill.

⁷ Hughes, T. P. (1983). Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930. Johns Hopkins University Press.

⁸ Bijker, W. E., Hughes, T. P., & Pinch, T. (Eds.). (1987). The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. MIT Press.

⁹ Pitt, J. (2000). Thinking About Technology: Foundations of the Philosophy of Technology. Seven Bridges Press.

¹⁰ Smith, M. R., & Marx, L. (Eds.). (1994). Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism. MIT Press.

¹¹ Heidegger, M. (1982). The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays. Harper Perennial.

¹² Ellul, J. (1964). The Technological Society. Vintage Books.

¹³ Ihde, D. (1990). Technology and the Lifeworld: From Garden to Earth. Indiana University Press.

¹⁴ Ihde, D. (1993). Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction. Paragon House Publishers.

¹⁵ Feenberg, A. (1999). Questioning Technology. Routledge.

¹⁶ Feenberg, A. (1991). Critical Theory of Technology. Oxford University Press.

¹⁷ Floridi, L. (Ed.). (2010). The Cambridge Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics. Cambridge University Press.

¹⁸ Wallach, W., & Allen, C. (2008). Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right from Wrong. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

¹⁹ Arkin, R. C. (2009). Governing Lethal Behavior in Autonomous Robots. Routledge.

²⁰ Van den Hoven, J., Vermaas, P. E., & van de Poel, I. (Eds.). (2015). Handbook of Ethics, Values, and Technological Design: Sources, Theory, Values and Application Domains. Springer.

²¹ Sandler, R. (Ed.). (2012). Ethics and Emerging Technologies. Palgrave Macmillan.