Demystifying Gravity and Dark Matter
Dark Matter Is Photonic
In this article, we explain the cause of gravity and reveal the surprising identity of the mysterious particle responsible for the extra gravity commonly attributed to dark matter. We devised a simple equation based on the absolute speed of light (c) to precisely calculate the gravitational force between two masses without using the gravitational constant G. We argue that dark matter is the reason for the high uncertainty and wide divergence observed in past measurements of G. Finally, we argue that the published CODATA value of G is slightly higher than it should be and that dark matter is to blame.
Introduction
Many believe that the gravitational constant G can only be measured, not calculated. We beg to differ. We show in this article that G can be precisely calculated directly from c and we formulated a simple equation to prove it. But more importantly, we show that G is no longer needed to calculate the gravitational force. The absolute speed of light is the only constant required.
This is the second of several articles we planned to publish on Lattice Theory, a theory of gravity, motion and fundamental particles. We thought that it was better to write about some of the most startling discoveries we made while researching the theory than to describe the tedious details of the theory in a multi-part article. Our previous article (The Lattice Theory — Electrostatics without Coulomb’s Law) explained the nature of the electrostatic force and unveiled a new equation that calculates the electrostatic force between elementary charges directly from the mass of the electron without Coulomb’s Law. Please read it first as it contains important information that is relevant to our theory of gravity and dark matter.
Postulates
“I consider it quite possible that physics cannot be based on the field concept, i.e., continuous structures. In that case, nothing remains of my entire castle in the air, gravitation theory included, [and of] the rest of modern physics.” — Albert Einstein in a letter to his friend Besso, from Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais.
The important arguments of our gravity theory are based on the notion that the universe is discrete and nonlocal. We postulate that we exist in an immense, highly regular, four-dimensional ocean of photons. We call it the Lattice. Nothing can move without the Lattice because motion, including inertial motion, is causal and requires particle interactions. Motion is discrete; that is, it consists of minute quantum jumps and each jump requires a cause. Lattice Theory postulates that the entire visible universe continually moves in the fourth dimension of the Lattice at c. This motion causes a violation of the principle of energy conservation. Nature corrects the violation and this is manifested as gravity. Furthermore, gravity is necessarily instantaneous and nonlocal because conservation laws are nonlocal and universal.
The following is a list of the assumptions or postulates of Lattice Theory. It is not a rigorous list but please use it as a reference as you read the rest of the article.
The Speed-of-Light System (SOL)
While researching gravity, we realized that the SI system of units was flawed because its base unit of mass, the kilogram, is largely arbitrary and, more importantly, it is incoherent with c. We created a new system of units for our purposes. We call it the ‘speed of light’ system or SOL. It is a simple system in that it retains the definition of the meter and the second but introduces a new base unit for mass which we dubbed the c-gram (cg). A familiarity with SOL is necessary in order to understand our gravity theory.
The q-meter is the shortest possible length. The q-second is what we refer to as the quantum instant or the quantum moment. It is the shortest possible duration. The q-gram is the smallest possible mass. It is expressed in c-grams, not kilograms. The c-Newton is similar to the SI unit for force, the Newton, except that it is defined in terms of the c-gram instead of the kilogram. Note that both the q-meter and the q-gram have equal numerical values even though they represent different units. We will explain the physical basis of the SOL system in a future article.
Gravitation without G
We derived our gravitational force equation directly from the postulates of Lattice Theory. It calculates the force of gravity between two bodies based on the speed of light and assumes SOL units. No gravitational constant is used.
F is the gravitational force expressed in c-Newtons. The constant of proportionality (k) is used only as a unit conversion coefficient. This is needed to match the units on both sides of the equation. It does nothing else.
M and m are the masses measured in c-grams. All the units in equation 1 are coherent with c because the constant of proportionality is equal to 1. As defined, the equation will only work with a fully coherent system of units such as the SOL system. It can be made to work with non-coherent systems of units but the constant k would have to be modified.
We initially calculated that 1 c-gram was equivalent to approximately 3.98 kilograms. However, our calculation was based on the CODATA value of the gravitational constant G. We were not satisfied with that value for a number of reasons which will become clear later. As we explained in our previous article, we eventually figured out, while researching electrostatics, that 1 c-gram was equivalent to about 4.0033 kilograms. Inversely, 1 kilogram is equivalent to about 0.2497 c-grams. In order to make equation 1 work with SI units, we simply modify the constant k to be equal to the inverse of the conversion factor (CF):
With this new constant of proportionality, the force F can now be expressed in Newtons and the masses in kilograms. Equation 1 gives a slightly lesser magnitude for the force of gravity than the Newtonian equation using the CODATA value of G. There is a surprising reason for this which we explain later.
The Cause of Gravity Is a Violation of the Conservation of Energy
In order to understand the cause of gravity, one must set aside existing preconceptions. For one, gravity does not cause time dilation, as some claim, since time cannot change by definition. Gravity reduces energy, which is what slows clocks (and everything else) down and causes the red-shifting of light. A reduction of energy entails that nature is correcting violations of the principle of energy conservation. The fact that gravity endures is a sign that the violations are continually occurring. Since conservation laws are nonlocal, it follows that gravity is a nonlocal or instantaneous phenomenon. Recall that nonlocal gravity is assumed by the Newtonian gravitational force equation which is very accurate and would not work otherwise.
Lattice Theory postulates that the entire visible 3-D universe is moving in the fourth dimension of the Lattice at the speed of light. What this means is that every particle in the universe has a special property that causes it to move in one direction in the fourth dimension as it interacts with the photons of the Lattice. This is the clincher. According to Lattice Theory, the motion of a particle of a given mass in the fourth dimension at c would normally require that it interacts with an equivalent amount of mass in the Lattice. The problem is that the photons that comprise the Lattice do not have mass. [Note: photons have a different kind of mass in Lattice Theory but this is beyond the scope of this article.] So the motion of matter in the fourth dimension causes a violation of the conservation of energy, thereby creating an energy deficit. We claim that this violation is the cause of gravity.
Nature corrects the violation by borrowing energy from the rest of the Lattice. This is manifested as a negative energy field that extends from the source of the violation in an inverse-square manner corresponding to the surface of a sphere, or 1/4πr². The field is perfectly symmetrical around the source so as to conserve a universal equilibrium. This equilibrium also requires that the gravitational forces on equidistant but opposite sides of a sphere around a body, are equal but have opposite directions. Here, again, is our equation for the gravitational force between two masses:
From equation 1, we can derive the gravitational acceleration caused by a body of mass m thus:
But why divide by c? The answer is that Lattice Theory dictates that, in order to keep a body continually moving at c, there must be a mass density equivalent to c² c-grams or 89,875,517,873,681,764 c-grams per square meter in the Lattice. Keep in mind that motion consists of quantum jumps and that moving at c amounts to a series of minute accelerations or jumps. Equation 3 calculates the amount of mass (or energy) per square meter, m/4πr², that needs to be borrowed from the Lattice at a given distance r. Dividing this amount by c gives us the gravitational acceleration at that distance. Equation 1 multiplies the acceleration by M to obtain the force F = Ma between M and m. When working with SI units, just use the conversion constant we calculated in equation 2 earlier. We will have more to say about the underlying physics of gravity in a future article.
A Troublesome Discrepancy
Here is the original Newtonian gravitational force equation:
Using equation 1 and Newton’s formula, we can derive an equation to calculate G in terms of c using our conversion constant for kilograms as follows:
The problem is that the current CODATA recommended value of G is slightly but significantly greater than the value predicted by Lattice theory in equation 4, as seen below.
We have the utmost confidence in the correctness of our gravity equation and the physics behind it. We reasoned that the most probable cause for the discrepancy was that G measuring experiments were picking up a tiny bit of extra gravity from somewhere, but where? Factoring in the energy-reducing effects of the gravity of the earth and that of all the other bodies in the solar system would account for only a very small fraction of the discrepancy. We knew that the accuracy of the measured value of G has been plagued with relatively high uncertainties compared to other scientific measurements but this did not explain the discrepancy we were wrestling with.
We were stumped for months with no hint of an explanation in sight. Out of sheer frustration, we decided to switch our attention exclusively to another problem we were also researching: the electron and the nature of the electrostatic field. Then something unexpected and wonderful happened.
From Dark to Light
As we described in our previous article, we made an astonishing discovery related to the mass of the electron. We discovered that the mass of the electron is equal to exactly 1838 elementary or quantum masses (1838 qg). This allowed us to calculate a conversion factor with which to accurately convert c-grams into kilograms. We also used it to formulate a simple equation (shown below) to precisely calculate the electrostatic force between two elementary charges based on the mass of an electron, the speed of light and the distance between the two. Coulomb’s Law is not used.
The equation shows that the electrostatic charge of an electron is not a separate property of matter but a direct consequence of its mass. We deduced that heavier particles such as the neutron or the proton were necessarily composed of a combination of electrons and positrons. Otherwise, they would have considerably higher electrostatic charges than the electron, which is not observed. This caused us to dismiss the quark theory as incorrect. We realize that this is a huge claim but we are confident in our theory.
All massive particles have one or more electric fields around them. We determined by simple logic that the proton, for example, consists of 918 electrons and 919 positrons, for a total of 1837 and a net positive charge of 1. In other words, the fields cancel each other out except for one. This is the reason that a proton has a charge that is equal and opposite to that of an electron. The neutron, on the other hand, has 919 electrons and 919 positrons, for a total of 1838 sub-particles and a zero net charge. This understanding fully contradicts mainstream quantum physics but it was the breakthrough we needed in order to solve the dark matter mystery.
Dark Photonic Halo
Current dark matter models favor a hypothesis that calls for dark and cold particles that form a sort of halo around large massive bodies found in galaxies. Cold signifies that the particles are massive and slow moving. This seems unlikely to us because massive particles would tend to gravitate toward each other and toward other massive bodies, forming clumps in orbit. This is not observed. We have a different theory that explains the halo as a field of massless photonic particles.
Given that most massive bodies are electrically neutral, nearly all of their electrostatic fields cancel each other out, rendering them undetectable. The fields are still there, however. That is to say, the electric photons that comprise the fields are still radiating from the masses. In Lattice theory, every particle causes gravity, including photons. And, contrary to the claims of quantum physics, electric photons are real particles, not virtual. We explained in our previous article that electric photons come from the Lattice.
We maintain that the combined energy of the electric photons radiated by a massive particle every q-second (see SOL units discussed earlier) is equivalent to the mass of the particle. This constitutes an enormous amount of electrically neutral, invisible matter that is continually radiating at the speed of light from all massive bodies. This means that the photonic matter of the universe is orders-of-magnitude greater than ordinary matter. Even though the photons are moving away at the speed of light, the fields themselves are stationary relative to the bodies that generate them.
In a very real sense, ordinary massive matter continually generates photonic dark matter which flows out into the visible universe. We posit that the electric photons of the fields, neutral or not, are responsible for all the gravity attributed to dark matter. We also claim that most of the gravity in the universe is due to electric photons. The density of a photonic field grows weaker with distance. It is as if every massive particle extends out into its surrounding space like a spherical halo which diminishes in density in an inverse square manner from the center. Again, the fields are undetectable by ordinary means due to their net electric neutrality but they still cause gravity.
Given that we are surrounded by the fields and that their density obeys an inverse square law, Lattice Theory predicts that their gravitational effects will be more pronounced at relatively large distances away from their denser centers of origin. This is what is observed as depicted in the graph above. It plots the observed velocities of orbiting stars in rotating galaxies (solid line) versus the expected velocities (dotted line).
The reason for the discrepancy is that, near the center of the halo, the gravitational forces within it will tend to oppose each other resulting in a much weaker but still detectable net strength. We will leave it to intrepid astrophysicists or cosmologists to compute the gravitational effect caused by the photonic fields on large astronomical bodies and compare the computed results to direct observational data. Lattice theory predicts that the results will be consistent with the photonic halo model.
Back to G with a Prediction
It was while researching neutral electric fields that we more or less stumbled upon the solution for the discrepancy problem we were having with the CODATA gravitational constant G. We hypothesize that the discrepancy is caused by the dark photonic matter that radiates, not only from the masses used for the measurements, but also from every other object near and far. The high uncertainty that plagues all G measurements can be attributed to this matter.
We predict that the distance between the masses used in the experiments will have a slight but significant effect on the measurements. In other words, the measured value of G will increase slightly with distance. This is not unlike the way the velocities of the stars orbiting a galactic center are higher than expected at a distance. Using test masses with materials of different densities will also have an effect on the measured value of G. Experimenters should use the G value we calculated in equation 4 earlier as the standard or correct value for ordinary matter. According to Lattice Theory, anything above that value is due to dark matter. In a sense, measuring G also measures dark matter.
Conclusion
In this article, we proposed a novel hypothesis to explain the cause of gravity and of the gravity commonly attributed to dark matter. We argued that gravity is caused by the motion of matter in the fourth dimension at the absolute speed of light c and we provided an equation to calculate the gravitational force based on c. The new value for G that we calculated means that the mass and density of the earth and the other bodies in the solar system must be slightly revised accordingly. Any suggestion that G is variable and therefore not a true constant should be frowned upon. It is just as constant as c. Indeed, there is no longer a valid reason to use G as a constant in physics. Equation 1 makes it obsolete.
Based on our research in electrostatics, we argued that dark matter is made of positive and electric electric photons that continually radiate from all massive particles. The electrostatic fields formed by the photons have a zero net charge but still cause gravity. We dismissed the quark theory of matter as pseudoscience.
Since Lattice Theory assumes that the universe is discrete and that gravity is a nonlocal phenomenon that acts instantaneously at a distance, we also consider that the theory of General Relativity has been falsified. Does this mean that gravitational waves are also falsified? The answer is yes. It is our firm belief that the claims of their detection by the LIGO project are bogus and should be investigated.
We reject the Big Bang Theory as abject pseudoscience because, according to Lattice Theory, no such explosion could have occurred because motion requires a cause. In other words, the existence of the Lattice would have to have preceded the Big Bang. We also believe that the postulated universal expansion of the universe is falsified by the existence of dark matter. The gravity generated by dark matter particles is enormous and, due to its energy-reducing effect, it readily explains the red-shifting of light from distant stars and galaxies. Therefore, there is no expansion and dark energy is not required.
We believe there is nothing wrong with Newtonian physics. Newton could not have known about dark matter and electric photons, certainly, but his gravitational force equation will work perfectly with ordinary masses and the correct G value. We suspect that the main cause of the observed anomalous precession of Mercury’s perihelion is dark matter and not relativistic mechanics. Mercury, being the planet closest to the sun, is less affected by the sun’s dark matter halo than the outer planets. The dynamics of the entire solar system will have to be recomputed in light of Lattice Theory.
It is our hope that the physics community will consider adopting the SOL system of units that we devised for our equations. Defining all base units to be coherent with c is a must in our view. In addition, the mass of the electron should be fixed at exactly 1838 q-grams (1838 qg). We will reveal more exciting details about Lattice Theory in future articles.
Coming Soon
We are preparing an article on the composition and properties of the proton and the neutron. We will show that they can be directly derived from those of the electron and positron. Our theory even explains the instability and the decay time of the neutron in terms of the electron. Needless to say, we disagree with the Standard Model. Thank you for reading.
