Utilising Digital Tools in Science Teaching and Learning

In today’s world, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is ubiquitous and is considered an essential part of life. Utilisation of digital tools (tools characterized by electronic and especially computerised technologies) has impacted and transformed every domain of life, including the field of education. This blog has been designed for my fellow teachers, particularly those teaching secondary science. In this blog, I have focused on the types of digital tools and the benefits of utilising them in the classroom, their role in improving student learning in science education, the knowledge required by teachers to effectively utilise these digital learning tools and the challenges faced in doing so. I have also included a compilation of digital resources for use in the science class.

Types of digital tools

Lim and Tay (2003) have classified digital learning tools into four categories. I have summarised them in the following poster.

Created using Canva

Lim and Tay (2003) assert that how the tools are being used is more important than what types of tools are being used. They suggest that the different types of ICT tools should be used in conjunction, to complement each other, in order to achieve the intended learning outcomes.

Benefits of utilising digital tools in education

Integration of ICT in education improves the quality of teaching and learning, and helps to raise the standards of education (Sangrà & González-Sanmamed, 2010). In their respective works, Abdullahi (2014) and Musker (2004) have mentioned a number of advantages of utilising digital tools in education. I have summarised some of these benefits in the following video.

Created using Powtoon

The role of digital tools in science education

Wellington (2004) explains that science is a very practical subject which involves “doing things” (p. 88). It involves observing, measuring, communicating and discussing, trying things out, investigating, handling things, watching and monitoring, and recording results (Wellington, 2004). However, as much as science is a practical discipline, it is equally a theoretical subject (Wellington, 2004). It involves critical thinking, inferring, hypothesising, theorising, simulating and modelling (Wellington, 2004). It also involves abstractions, difficult ideas and theoretical entities that cannot be seen or handled (Wellington, 2004). The following discussion focuses on how digital tools help in both these aspects of science learning, practical as well as theoretical.

Why use digital tools in the science laboratory?

McFarlane & Sakellariou (2010) assert that the aim of practical work in science education can be viewed as four-fold:

• to motivate students,
• to teach them the theoretical content,
• to enhance their laboratory skills and
• to expose students to a version of scientific method to help them develop scientific reasoning, scientific thinking and scientific literacy.

However, they argue that when learners are engaged in a practical activity, they are required to become familiar with the equipment, organise the activity, take measurements, record data, observe, draw conclusions and so on, almost simultaneously. This results in a work and information overload. In order to handle this, students often either: adopt a simple recipe approach, focus on one aspect, or copy what others are doing (McFarlane & Sakellariou, 2010). As a result, they are unable to comprehend the underlying scientific concepts, and may resort to memorising the content without actually understanding it (McFarlane & Sakellariou, 2010). Tran et al. (2017) agree that very often traditional practical laboratory work is successful in getting learners to do what is intended with the physical objects, and teach them safe handling of chemicals and apparatus, but is much less efficient in helping them to develop a theoretical understanding, reflect on the data they have collected, and apprehend the underlying scientific concepts.

Let us consider how digital tools can be used to tackle some of these constraints in science learning. Tran et al. (2017) state that valuable digital tools such as data logging, video measurement and simulations can be used to support authentic investigations in secondary school science. In data logging, the computer undertakes the monotonous and repetitive tasks such as measuring and graphing, allowing students to focus more on the underlying scientific phenomena and interpretation of the experiment; video measurements facilitate assessment of all kinds of motion including very fast phenomena; and with the assistance of simulations, students can analyse complex or even microscopic phenomena (Tran et al., 2017). McFarlane and Sakellariou (2010) add that using these invaluable digital tools helps to enhance the students’ “investigative, analytical and interpretative skills” (p. 223). Barton (2005) asserts that there is considerable amount of research indicating that using computer-aided practical work results in advancements in the learners’ ability to interpret data, enhanced scientific inquiry skills, and improved conceptual understanding of the scientific phenomena.

In figure 1, McFarlane & Sakellariou (2010) indicate how different digital tools can be utilised to aid scientific investigation.

Figure 1

Digital tools in practical investigation

Multimedia and Computer Assisted Instruction in science education

The Australian Curriculum refers to multimedia as the materials and tools that are developed or presented using digital technologies, with a combination of two or more of the following: animation, audio, still and moving images, and text (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA], n.d.). Multimedia use by teachers can enhance the flexibility, diversity and accessibility of teaching and learning materials (ACARA, n.d.). Similarly, Computer Assisted Instructions (CAI) use computers as a tool in the learning environment to facilitate and enhance instruction. CAI utilizes a combination of text, graphics, audio, video, animation and simulation to enhance student learning (Tekbiyik & Akdeniz, 2010). In addition to the general advantages of utilisation of digital tools in education already mentioned earlier via the video, some of the advantages of multimedia and CAI, particularly in science teaching and learning, are as follows:

• Multimedia allows students to visually see and understand abstract concepts underlying scientific phenomena, which otherwise cannot be seen in real life or demonstrated physically (McFarlane & Sakellariou, 2010; Wellington, 2004). For example, energy in a substance.
• Dynamic images and animations aid understanding and meaningful learning of science content (Wellington, 2004).
• CAI helps to teach scientific concepts and phenomena which cannot be demonstrated or observed in the science classroom or the laboratory, for example, earthquakes, volcanoes and celestial bodies (Al-Rsa’i, 2013).
• Teaching using multimedia enhances conceptual understanding of science, and supports students to acquire advanced levels of scientific literacy (Al-Rsa’i, 2013).
• Utilising animation to represent scientific models helps to simplify the concept, and enhances understanding of complex scientific phenomena. It also augments the students’ ability to explain the scientific concepts (Barak et al., 2011).
• Animations help to develop greater motivation in students to learn science, and increase their interest and engagement in the subject (Barak et al., 2011).
• Learning using multimedia promotes students’ appreciation of relevance of science to real life and its significance to their future (Barak et al., 2011).
• Using animated movies to study science benefits students with all the three learning styles (visual, auditory and kinaesthetic) (Barak et al., 2011).
• CAI allows students to control the pace at which information is presented to them, and provides them with additional practice, thus enabling students to control their own learning process and enhance their self- efficacy (Tekbiyik & Akdeniz, 2010).
• CAI is effective in increasing student motivation, interest and learning in science, and promotes scientific thinking and understanding (Tekbiyik & Akdeniz, 2010).
• Using computer simulations (computerised representations of scientific models), systems can be virtually manipulated to understand their behaviour when conditions are changed, and the outcome of these changes can be viewed and measured (Khan 2011).
• Computer-based simulations help to augment the students’ ability to make predictions, and enhance their conceptual understanding of the phenomena under study (Khan, 2011).
• Computer simulations allow demonstration of reactions which are not possible to be performed in a school laboratory, permitting experimentation with extreme or otherwise dangerous conditions (Khan 2011; Wellington, 2004).
• Multimedia allows students to visualise aspects of science which are either too large or too small to view in real life (Wellington, 2004). For example, movement of substances across the plasma membrane.
• Computer simulations allow instant testing of ideas, and also provides immediate feedback (Khan 2011).
• Computer simulations are enormously valuable in teaching concepts which cannot be replicated in a traditional laboratory, for instance, biology concepts like nutrient absorption in digestion; chemistry topics like factors affecting reaction rates; physics processes like atomic fusion, atomic fission and radioactivity (Maharaj-Sharma et al., 2017).
• CAI allows virtual experimentation in a flexible environment in which students can a proceed at their own pace, perform as many repetitions of the experiment as needed with considerable ease and in limited time; while simultaneously also observing the graphical representations (Ardac & Sezen, 2002).
• Computer-based learning environments promote the use of ‘what-if’ questions, encourage critical and analytical thinking, and facilitate the mastery of content as well as the processes of science (Ardac & Sezen, 2002).
• Innovative teaching using multimedia encourages creativity, promotes inquiry-based learning and builds positive attitudes in the students towards science (Al-Rsa’i, 2013).
• Utilisation of computer simulations in teaching promotes student motivation and active participation in the classroom, and enhances conceptual understanding of the science content being taught (Rutten et al., 2015).

A word of caution

However, Wellington (2004) cautions us that while multimedia has the power to represent ‘invisible’ concepts, it can also lead to the misinterpretation of abstract scientific ideas. He asserts that the visual representations of scientific concepts portrayed using technology may sometimes be “a distortion of the complex and messy reality of science” (p. 98). While portrayal of scientific concepts using multimedia is capable of motivating and engaging the students, it can also sometimes breed misconceptions. Hence, Wellington (2004) suggests that while teaching science using multimedia is a valuable approach, it should not be the exclusive way by which science is taught, and should not entirely replace other teaching strategies. Utilisation of ICT to aid understanding of scientific concepts should always be under the guidance of a teacher. Additionally, multimedia presents science and science activity as easy and unproblematic, when in reality scientific investigation is a “complex, highly problematic venture” (Wellington, 2004, p. 98). McFarlane & Sakellariou (2010) further this argument stating that development of laboratory skills, advancement of specific manipulative skills, such as titration or dissection, and learning safe handling of chemicals and apparatus, cannot be adequately achieved through technology. Besides, virtual experiments never ‘go wrong’ (Wellington, 2004). McFarlane & Sakellariou (2010) hence suggest that while simulations help tremendously in development of scientific understanding, they should not entirely replace traditional science teaching and laboratory-based practical work.

Utilising digital tools to support constructivist learning in science

Constructivist learning, or ‘constructivism’, is a conceptual view of learning that is based on the child development theories of Jean Piaget. Constructivism views learning as an active process in which students construct their own knowledge, rather than passively take in information (Tytler, 2012). It involves building on the pre-existing knowledge of the learners by performing activities that require higher order thinking skills with an investigative perspective (Al-Rsa’i, 2013). According to this theory, students learn by doing, exploring and investigating; acquiring new knowledge from their experiences and assimilating it in their existing conceptual understanding (Fernandes et al., 2019). The constructivist model is central to science education, as students must gain a meaningful understanding of science, not only as a body of knowledge, but also for making sense of the surroundings. Digital learning tools permit students to manipulate representations of scientific concepts, allowing them to investigate and test out their ideas about the theoretical world in real life, thus supporting the inquiry model and constructivist learning (Hennessy, 2006). Utilising digital tools in science teaching encourages students to think and enhances their reasoning skills; enabling them to use the new knowledge gained to build on their prior knowledge, or sometimes even challenge it (Hennessy, 2006). This enables students to develop correct scientific concepts and counter misconceptions, thus enriching science learning.

In addition to stimulating authentic science learning through encouraging reflective thinking and problem solving, digital tools in science learning also support meaningful learning by allowing easy communication and collaboration (Al-Rsa’i, 2013). By supporting valuable peer communication and collaboration, ICT helps to support a social constructivist learning environment. Social constructivism, a sociological theory of learning based on Lev Vygotsky’s views, states that learners construct their new understanding and knowledge through social interaction with others (Tytler, 2012). According to this theory, discussions in which students share and critique each other’s ideas, help them to achieve ‘co-constructed’ explanations and meaningful learning (Tytler, 2012). The contemporary views suggest that science learning involves active knowledge construction, by connecting, communicating and collaborating with others in addition to interacting with scientific models (Tran et al., 2017). ICT provides opportunities for interactive scientific discussions and communication with others, thus promoting critical thinking, allowing constructive criticism of presenting ideas, enhancing problem solving skills, and encouraging continuing self-learning (Al-Rsa’i, 2013). Utilising digital tools thus helps to achieve meaningful science learning.

How can teachers effectively utilise digital tools in their teaching?

Koehler and Mishra (2009) explain that there is no ‘one best way’ to integrate technology into curriculum. Rather, integration efforts should be creatively designed or structured for particular subject matter ideas in specific classroom contexts. Honouring the idea that teaching with technology is a complex task, the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model was developed in 2006 by Mishra and Koehler with the intention of supporting effective integration of educational technology tools in classroom instruction of specific subjects (Ferk Savec, 2017).

TPACK is a technology integration framework that helps teachers to identify the knowledges required by them for successfully utilising digital tools in their teaching to enhance student outcomes (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). Koehler & Mishra (2009) explain that according to the TPACK framework, there are three core components of teacher’s knowledge:

• Content Knowledge (CK): Knowledge about the subject content to be taught.
• Pedagogical Knowledge (PK): Knowledge about the methods, approaches and practices of teaching.
• Technological Knowledge (TK): Knowledge about the use of ICT and working with technology tools and resources.

Figure 2

The TPACK framework and its knowledge components.

The TPACK model helps teachers to consider how these three knowledge domains intersect to facilitate effective teaching using technology. Thereby, science teachers’ TPACK can be recognised as a dynamic, integrative, and transformative knowledge of technology, pedagogy, and science content needed for the meaningful integration of ICT in science teaching (Ferk Savec, 2017).

Challenges

Ferk Savec (2017) discusses some challenges in the science teachers’ development of TPACK which significantly influence utilisation of digital tools in science education. These factors that act as an impediment to the effective use of ICT in science teaching have been summarised in the poster below:

Created using PowerPoint. Images from Unsplash.

For overcoming these challenges, supporting science teachers’ future development of TPACK and successful utilisation of digital tools in science education, Ferk Savec (2017) suggests the following:

• Making modern devices and up-to-date technology available to the students in science classrooms, including the possibility of the use of students’ own devices.
• Availability of ongoing training to develop and continuously update teachers’ knowledge and skills for meaningful utilisation of digital tools in science teaching.
• Providing teachers subject specific ICT-based resources and e-learning platforms accompanied with training, to promote their technology related knowledge.
• Encouraging the participation of science teachers in ICT training to increase positive beliefs about teaching using digital tools and understand its potential in enhancing students’ learning outcomes in science.
• Ensuring teachers receive the required support from school for their continuous TPACK development and didactical use of ICT in teaching science subjects.

Resources for science teachers

Below I have created a compilation of some online resources for science teachers, arranged alphabetically. These resources present science content in a variety of formats such as text, videos, simulations, interactive activities, and so on, to aid science teaching and learning. While most of these resources are free to use, a few paid resources have been included as well.

ABC Education: This site includes educational resources for primary and secondary schools. It includes videos, games and other resources aligned to the Australian curriculum.

BBC Bitesize: BBC Bitesize is a free online study support resource designed to help with learning, revision and homework. Bitesize provides support for learners aged 5 to 16+ across a wide range of school subjects. This resource includes content presented in a variety of formats, including videos, interactive activities and games.

BioEd Online: BioEd Online offers high-quality lessons, teacher guides, slides, video and supplemental materials that can be downloaded for use in the science classroom. Materials are sorted by format, topic and grade level, making it easy locate content that is appropriate for the students.

Cells Alive!: This website has games, puzzles, and models to help students interact with science and learn about cells, microbes and the immune system. This resource also includes worksheets and quizzes to use in class.

Chemistry Education Resources: This American Chemical society website provides a wide variety of chemistry education resources from lesson plans to classroom activities. These resources focus on five topics — The Earth, Water, Food, Health & Your Body, and The Periodic Table — and put a spotlight on the connection between chemistry and everyday life.

ClickView: ClickView is a suite of thousands of interactive videos and related resources that support learning and teaching across all subject areas. ClickView content is mapped to the Victorian curriculum, and allows teachers to deliver individualised learning activities to students and view and assess their responses. It is available for all students and teachers in Victorian government schools.

Cool Australia: This not-for-profit organisation provides high-quality educational resources for teachers and students. These resources are mapped to relevant year levels, learning areas, general capabilities and cross-curriculum priorities of the Australian Curriculum.

CSIRO Education Programs: This website provides a range of engaging science programs for schools and students, to support science learning.

Department of Education: The Department of Education of Western Australia provides learning resources for all subjects and all year levels, from kindergarten to grade 12.

Discovery Education: This website has resources for students, parents, and educators. This site also includes games and homework help. There are resources for all subjects, but their science tools are exceptional.

Edheads: This resource provides engaging web simulations and activities for kids. Current activities focus on simulated surgical procedures, cell phone design (with market research), simple and compound machines, and weather prediction.

FUSE: This is a content library of teaching materials and educational resources. It covers traditional text resources, multimedia, videos and interactives. All resources are recommended and reviewed by educators, and tagged according to the Victorian curriculum. Victorian government school staff can log in to upload and share content or create resource packages.

Geoscience Australia: Geoscience Australia provides teaching resources for primary and secondary levels. Resources include background information, student activities, full-colour cut-out 3D models and posters.

Kahoot!: Kahoot! is an educational tool that can be used in a classroom to pit students against one another in a game setting, or students can play by themselves to test their own knowledge. Either way, this resource appeals to the competitive spirit.

Khan Academy: This not-for-profit organisation provides short lessons in the form of videos and support information, for a number of subjects, including science.

Nova: The Australian Academy of Science publishes this website which examines topical science issues. The material is suitable for secondary students and teachers.

PBS learning media: This website is multisubject, but can be sorted by grade level and subject. Resources include audio, video, images, PDFs, interactive activities, etc.

Periodic Table of Elements: This online resource puts everything you ever need to know about the elements in one place. It states the properties of each element, gives the electron count, and provides many more details.

PhET: The University of Colorado Boulder’s PhET provides dozens of free interactive simulations for Physics, Chemistry and Biology. These simulations are based on extensive research, and they engage students through an intuitive, game-like environment so they can have fun learning through exploration and discovery. PhET lessons are very engaging and easy to integrate into science teaching.

Primezone: This site provides teachers with single-point access to a range of primary industries education resources.

Science by Doing: This is an online secondary school program presenting science in an engaging, guided inquiry-based approach to enhance student interest and understanding. It is freely accessible for all Australian students and teachers and comprehensively covers the Australian Curriculum: Science, Years 7–10.

ScienceWeb Australia: This resource includes units of work for years F–10, prepared by the Australian Science Teachers Association (ASTA) in partnership with Education Services Australia (ESA). The units align with the Australian Curriculum and consist of an overview, five lesson plans, and additional links and resources. It also includes extension activities for gifted and talented secondary students for the units in years 7–10.

Scootle: This is an excellent website which provides Australian teachers with access to more than 20,000 quality-assured digital learning resources aligned to the Australian Curriculum.

Stile: Stile provides over 70 Science units, each containing a mixture of content delivery, formative assessment, summative assessment, experiments, projects, classroom activities, and STEM career profiles. Every lesson is completely customisable, allowing teachers to tailor content and questions to the needs of their school’s curriculum or individual students. Available to Years 7–8 students and their Science teachers in Victorian government schools.

The Periodic Table of Videos: This website provides a wide array of videos about the elements and other chemistry topics.

The Physics Classroom: This website features tutorials, interactives, simulations, concept builders, and teacher resources. This is an excellent resource for teaching physics.

Understanding Evolution: This website provides a plethora of resources, news items and lessons for teaching about evolution. Lessons provide appropriate “building blocks” to help students at any grade level work towards a deeper understanding of evolution. The Evolution 101 tutorial provides a great overview of the science behind evolution and the multiple lines of evidence that support the theory.

Understanding Science: This website is a great resource for learning more about the process of science. Understanding Science also provides a variety of teaching resources including case studies of scientific discoveries and lesson plans for the different grade levels.

There are also many YouTube channels, like SciShow which aid teaching scientific concepts, by providing accessible and easy-to-understand videos. Kharbach (2013) provides list of YouTube channels for science teachers and students, which can be accessed here.

In addition to the above resources, the Victorian Department of Education and Training (2020b) also provides a compilation of digital resources to aid science teaching and learning. This list can be accessed here.

References

Abdullahi, H. (2014). The role of ICT in teaching science education in schools. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences, 19, 217–223. https://doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ILSHS.19.217

Al-Rsa’i, M. S. (2013). Promoting scientific literacy by using ICT in science teaching. International Education Studies, 6(9), 175–186. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v6n9p175

Ardac, D. & Sezen, A. H. (2002). Effectiveness of computer-based chemistry instruction in enhancing the learning of content and variable control under guided versus unguided conditions. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 11(1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013995314094

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (n.d.). Multimedia. https://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/resources/curriculum-connections/portfolios/multimedia/

Barak, M., Ashkar, T., & Dori, Y. J. (2011). Learning science via animated movies: Its effect on students’ thinking and motivation. Computers & Education, 56(3), 839– 846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.025

Barton, R. (2004). Management and organization of computer-aided practical work. In R. Barton (Ed.), Teaching secondary science with ICT (pp. 40–52). McGraw-Hill Education.

Barton, R. (2005). Supporting teachers in making innovative changes in the use of computer‐aided practical work to support concept development in physics education. International Journal of Science Education, 27(3), 345–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069042000230794

Brunsell, E. (2014, October 10). Ten Websites for Science Teachers. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/websites-for-science-teachers-eric-brunsell

Education Services Australia. (n.d.). ScienceWeb Australia: Welcome. http://scienceweb.asta.edu.au/

Ferk Savec, V. (2017). The opportunities and challenges for ICT in science education. LUMAT: International Journal on Math, Science and Technology Education, 5(1), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.31129/LUMAT.5.1.256

Fernandes G. W., Rodrigues A. M., & Ferreira C. A. (2019). Different theoretical approaches to the use of ICT in science education. In Using ICT in Inquiry-Based Science Education (pp. 39–58). Springer, Cham.

Hennessy, S. (2006). Integrating technology into teaching and learning of school science: A situated perspective on pedagogical issues in research. Studies in Science Education, 42, 1–48. https://search-proquest-com.ez.library.latrobe.edu.au/docview/222890606/fulltextPDF/DBD89687D6224E63PQ/1?accountid=12001

Khan, S. (2011). New pedagogies on teaching science with computer simulations. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 20(3), 215–232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-010-9247-2

Kharbach, M. (2013, December 16). Top YouTube channels for science and math teachers and students. https://www.educatorstechnology.com/2013/12/top-youtube-channels-for-science-and.html

Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60–70. http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMAT7050/articles/KoehlerMishra.pdf

Lim, C. P., & Tay, L. Y. (2003). Information and communication technologies (ICT) in an elementary school: Students’ engagement in higher order thinking. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 12(4), 425–451. http://www.oocities.org/tayleeyong/higherorderthinking.pdf

Maharaj-Sharma, R., Sharma, A., & Sharma, A. (2017). Using ICT-based instructional technologies to teach science: Perspectives from teachers in Trinidad and Tobago. The Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 42(10), 23–35. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2017v42n10.2

McFarlane, A. & Sakellariou, S. (2010) The role of ICT in science education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 32(2), 219–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057640220147568

Musker, R. (2004). Using ICT in a secondary science department. In R. Barton (Ed.), Teaching secondary science with ICT (pp. 7–25). McGraw-Hill Education.

Rutten, N., van der Veen, J. T., & van Joolingen, W. R. (2015). Inquiry-Based Whole-Class Teaching with Computer Simulations in Physics. International Journal of Science Education, 37(8), 1225–1245. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2015.1029033

Sangrà, A., & González-Sanmamed, M. (2010). The role of information and communication technologies in improving teaching and learning processes in primary and secondary schools. ALT-J Research in Learning Technology, 18(3), 207–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687769 .2010.529108

Tekbiyik, A., & Akdeniz, A. R. (2010). A meta-analytical investigation of the influence of computer assisted instruction on achievement in science. Asia — Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 11(2), 1–22. https://search-proquest-com.ez.library.latrobe.edu.au/docview/1955057317?accountid=12001&pq-origsite=primo

The University of Western Australia. (n.d.). Science resources for teachers. https://www.uwa.edu.au/study/for-teachers/science-resources-for-teachers

Tran, T., van den Berg, E., Ellermeijer, T., & Beishuizen, J. (2017). Learning to teach inquiry with ICT. Physics Education, 53(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6552/aa8a4f

Tytler, R. (2012). Constructivist and socio-cultural views of teaching and learning. In G. Venville & V. Dawson (Eds.), The Art of Teaching Science for Middle and Secondary School (2nd ed., pp. 41–62). Allen and Unwin.

Victorian Department of Education and Training. (2020a, August 17). Digital learning tools. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/digital/Pages/tools.aspx

Victorian Department of Education and Training. (2020b, September 04). Science websites. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/science/Pages/learnteach.aspx#link58

Wellington, J. (2004). Multimedia in science teaching. In R. Barton (Ed.), Teaching secondary science with ICT (pp. 87–105). McGraw-Hill Education.