The ability to play is an achievement.

This Old River
Sep 6, 2018 · 13 min read

This essay was originally an assignment in which we had to argue whether play is an achievement inasmuch as it is conducive for development. The article will focus on psychosocial and social-cognitive aspects of Donald Winnicott’s Transitional Objects theory and Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development respectively. Each theory will be elaborated, with brief comparison, to highlight various achievements that play affords in the development of a person. The context in which play is discussed is not limited to children, although it is a primary focus. This will become evident through the examples of play, therapy, activity and achievement intermittently referring to capacities of child and adult. A critique on both theories will be provided, with minor reference to empirical research and psychoanalytic theory, in order to highlight their validity and the implications for development if play is not achieved. Full references for in-text citations will be provided at the end of the article.

According to Winnicott and Vygotsky…

Winnicott (1971. p.51) attested that psychotherapy itself is predicated on the ability for both the therapist and the patient to engage with play. In circumstances whereby the patient cannot play, then it is the obligation of the therapist to induce the child from a state of inability to ability of play. This inability was referred to by Winnicott (1971. p.64) as a major symptom; play is not only an achievement but it is crucial to the work. Conceptualising his approach through the psychoanalytic framework, Winnicott stated that the action of playing can both facilitate and be an expression of communication. Thus, if psychoanalysis is also considered a sophisticated development of play through communication, then the conclusion of the above premises warrants that playing in analysis does not exclude the realm of adulthood (Winnicott, 1971). While Winnicott did state that the therapist must attend to this play inability, there is the immediate implication that a ‘normal’ child has had to progress through antecedent stages prior to a session, that is if the therapy requires the child to be alone or away from their parents. Through a simplified example, Winnicott formulated his transitional stage model whereby an infant progresses from a subjectively ‘merged’ state with their object, through an intermediary potential space between baby and mother-figure, in which the infant begins to perceive an objectivity. The infant’s evaluation of this experience depends on the mother-figure’s ability to attend to the infant in finding objects externally (Winnicott, 1971. pp.63–64). A rudimentary ability to play suggests that a child has achieved an ability to symbolize through the use of a transitional object. What this has implications for is the child’s ability to separate their subjectivity from the objective world, hence achieving the ability to differentiate between fantasy and reality (Varga, 2011). Theoretically, what these experiences afford for the next stage is a child’s sense of the mother-figure’s reliability and their capability of being alone in the presence of another. While the child can tolerate being alone, the work of the analyst is required, as if in the place of the mother-figure, for communicating trust further allowing the child to tolerate the introduction of the playing that is external and belongs to the therapist (Winnicott, 1971).

Playing and Reality. Donald Winnicott, 1971

In this setting, play is not to be considered as something artificial for generating analytic content. The doing of play is experientially real to the child. It is the spontaneity in the play that supplies significance in the analytic material for interpretation, which Winnicott argued cannot be achieved ex vivo of the analyst and patient’s play. A comparison can be made here between the manifestations an adult communicates via Free Association and the occurrences from children playing with toys in the trusted environment; both communicate ideas, impulses thoughts and sensations (Winnicott, 1971). The locus of the potential space that is taken up between the two in the therapeutic session and the environment itself are valuable for the child, as the therapist’s ‘play’ reflects back to the child cultural and emotional experiences. The introjection of which will be conducive to their development as an individual. Yet if the analyst takes up the position of knowing, then the provision of trust may be undone as it stifles creative emergence (Winnicott, 1971. pp.68–76).

From this example it is clearer how play inherent in the work is also an achievement for the therapist, to engage the child in a way that is further conducive to both the child’s analysis and development; this spontaneity in playing reifies creativity, which Winnicott (1971. p.72) further posited is an essential condition for success in the discovery of the self, more specifically an integrated personality.

It may also be shown through a social-cognitive model how play functions for optimizing development. The ‘potential space’ where there is overlap of two subject’s play can draw comparison to Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) when examined through a therapeutic assimilation model; where intrapsychic processes can be analysed and setbacks in therapy can be collaboratively worked on when therapist play interventions and interpretations exceed the patient’s current ability to integrate them (Zonzi et al., 2014). Vygotsky (1967. p.16) claimed that play “creates the ZPD”, functioning as a place where a child can learn to subordinate their impulsive wishes to a rule that is taught. In play the child is exposed to behaviour that is otherwise above their level of normal play behaviour. The development found in a play relationship is further considered comparable to the instruction-development relationship; as a provisional space, changes for adapting needs of young children are developed through cognitive achievements such as imaginary situations and instantiating volitional intention.

Vygotsky postulated play as a child’s wish fulfillment, less Freudian and more behaviourist specific; the fulfillment of affects that have been generalized from various experiences and conditioned reactions over a child’s development. For Vygotsky, the maturing of incentives and needs that motivate play become satisfied for the time that they are of the highest interest of the child and thus change at another developmental period. In this case, neither the pre-schooler’s incentive that compels them to play nor the infant’s need that is derived from thumb-sucking are likely to be “conditioned by similar affective mechanisms” (Vygotsky, 1967. p.3).

Scaffolding: Younger children’s vicarious learning of rules of play from Older children

Vygotsky’s writing highlights the criteria of imaginary situation as an important attribute of play; the function of imagination is that it is an illusory realisation of actions and desires that cannot be actually realised in the physical world (Vygotsky, 1967. p.3). The example provided is that, mentally a child can conceive of the ‘object of the animal’ horse from what is signified by the word ‘horse’ only. The ability in separating a meaning from the object, by using a stick as a pivotal point in place of the horse, is done unconsciously by the child (Vygotsky, 1967. p.12). This illustrates that play itself is not simply an isolated thing or action that a child does, nor is the grasp of the imagination (and ideas which will determine the rules of play) achieved at once; Play is conceptualized as a transitional stage through which ruled-actions become gradually determined by mental ideas that are divorced from external objects. Play itself functions as a transition from a child operating in real action with real things or objects, to a stage of operating with the meanings of those real objects in their imagination (Vygotsky, 1967. p.10). It could be argued that utilizing imagination is an achievement of the child’s mental and cognitive capacity to free themselves from the physical constraints of the real world. Perceptual distinctions of sense and meaning can be inferred from the real world but can also be generalized; cognition incentivised by internal tendencies. What this internal incentive is, is predicated on the claim that play is inherently connected to pleasure (Vygotsky, 1967. p.12). This implies that to act on an impulse which has pleasing results is to not maximise for optimal pleasure that could be derived, however as a child develops, the rules observed in structured play can also be generalised; the demand of a game’s rules placed on a child delaying their immediate impulse to act demonstrates a wilful act of restraint. Vygotsky (1967. pp.13–14) concluded that play is an achievement of the child coming to operate their will power, whereby the child forgoes the pleasure of an immediate impulse for the greater pleasure of following rule-governed play. In this regard, the rule of play is internalised and generalised with a positive affect.

In summation, the achievements of play in Vygotsky’s model of development are the instantiation of the imaginary situation, which exemplifies abstract thought. The comprehension of rules and the significance of their adherence, the on-going development of which is suggested to imbue the child’s attitude toward reality, their school work instruction, further adult work life and the relationship system they will have toward others (Vygotsky, 1967. p.18; Bodrova, Germeroth & Leong, 2013). Play improves the ability to use mental representations, which is observed when a child separates the object’s meaning from the object’s physical form (Bodrova & Leong, 2015. p.380).

The ZPD, illustrated by Verbal to Visual.

Critique and Discussion

While Vygotsky did not deliberate on children’s ages for these gradual developments, he did designate certain cognitive inabilities and abilities to ‘preschool’ and ‘school’ age respectively, which seem to serve as consistent heuristics in Vygotskian literature. These approximations do more to confuse the theory than elucidate it as there is little reference to the variables of these event stages that will influence these developments (Vygotsky, 1967).

Vygotsky (1967. p.17) claimed that while pleasure is an important factor of play, ‘purpose’ is the dominant feature without which play cannot be correctly conceived of. With this, Vygotsky also narrowed the scope of play to games and the objective of winning. In doing so it assumes a finitude on the development of play for the human, the apotheosis of which is the emergence of rules somewhere at “school age”. This tacitly implies two points; firstly, that preschool age play has no purpose, at least to the perspective of the player, as this player cannot distinguish between the imaginary situation and the real one (Vygotsky, 1967. p.18). Secondly, that children of school age and older will find no appeal in play that could be considered purposeless, immature yet pleasurable; satisfaction in winning or the potential winning is imperative. Little support has been given for the this claim as it was found in recent studies that some school-aged children were observed to engage in play with singular themes and low variation characteristic of pre-school immature play. However, this was suggested to be a consequence of low support between teacher-pupil relationships and poorer quality in play provided by modern educational institutions, hence a regression to immature play resulted (Bodrova et al., 2013). Here it can be seen how scaffolding from a more knowledgeable other, be they adult or simply older, is considered vital. The shortcoming in the above theory of play’s apotheosis has been expanded upon by post-Vygotskian students who suggest that as children age, their play further matures; the object-substitutes used in place of real objects, i.e. a stick for a horse, are disposed of as the substitution itself optimizes for gestures and words to elicit the imaginary object. This advancement in ‘play’ is considered the activity whose subject is the adult (Bodrova et al., 2013. p.115).

Scaffolding

glaring incompatibility with Winnicott’s theory on play can be demonstrated, as the Vygotskian approach to play does not account for spontaneity, exploration or object manipulation (Bodrova, Germeroth & Leong, 2013). At least the latter two are not explicitly stated, while spontaneity would only match the immature play of a pre-schooler. The more mature rule-governed play of the school aged child, which is characterised by suppressing spontaneous impulses, is exactly what Vygotsky hinges his theory of developing self-regulation upon. While it is inherently contentious to contrast psychoanalytic and social/cognitive theories as they each focus their operant on the significance and achievements of play in overtly different contexts, i.e. play for the work in analysis and play correlated with cognitive skills, both theorists have the function of development as a common denominator in their theories.

However, in the Winnicottian model of development it isn’t clarified how the early infant, who cannot distinguish between me and not-me, comes to recognize the mismatch between what is desired and what is actual, other than what is implied by the psychoanalytic theory of libidinal frustration. Winnicott’s claim that an inability to differentiate in infants younger than 8–12 months from their caretaker is an empirical one and is not supported with current research, for example it has been found that neonates can imitate lip and tongue protrusion, which suggests a capacity for distinction between me and not-me in addition to the child’s sense of one’s body limits (Varga, 2011. p.631)

In the theory, the mother-figure acts like a holding environment that allows the child to gradually tolerate moving toward autonomy. The objects and spaces that a child transitions with offer security to begin distinguishing boundaries in the child’s gradual conception of whole self; from part-child part-mother to individual. The sense of separateness is suggested to elicit danger and stress, hence the idea of psychotherapy as play becomes more salient when Transference is also understood as a transitional object; repeating dynamics consisting of part-therapist, part-patient, where the therapist maintains the holding environment and fosters growth and autonomy (Bornstein, 2013). That is, the space and time is given by the therapist for the client to actively find a relationship that is reliable (Cornell, 2015. p.85)

Play itself engenders the high possibility of risk, its inherent precariousness is due to the dynamic between the child’s subjective experience and what they perceive objectively. Types of object manipulation and the interest of such involve bodily excitement, yet the reliability of such a relationship is not certain, as specific objects such as people can react with a high variability (Cornell, 2015. p.83–84). What is ideally achieved by negotiating this uncertainty is a sense of agency whereby the person is engaged in the doing of play; manipulating the external to find their control. It is for this reason that Winnicott’s model arguably represents an idealization in regards to play, the role of the mother and therapist in place of the mother-figure (Cornell, 2015). While Winnicott does address the paradox of a transitional object, that is simultaneously internalised and perceived externally, there appears to be an underestimation of the commonality in the affective withdrawal of mothers from their infant, while little more is said of the individual’s selective processes in their response variability to both the emotionally absent ‘imago’ of mother or the acceptance of the paradox; Modell (2005. p.84) argues that some children may have the capacity to forgo complete primary identification, thus construct psychical relation on separateness as a compensatory outcome. Albeit this criticism is tentative as an infant’s inner-response to emotionally dead mothers is difficult to verify outside of inferences that are drawn from behavioural responses, which may repeat in analysis (Modell, 2005).

What the dead mother syndrome can highlight however is when the potential space fostered in play is not achieved, not only is there a loss of love implied but also a loss of meaning (Hart, 2012. p.347). In a more advanced form of symbolic play, it is suggested that infants also relate to an object through another person’s relatedness to that same object; in this way meanings, attitudes and perspectives to people and objects become reified (Varga, 2011). Without such, the transitional space inherent in play, and to an extent the ZPD, could not afford a crucial place for the intermediary experiences that effect an individual, even when a transitional object or the play conducted there is outgrown. By extension the lack of this space would not give affordance to transitioning the appreciation of and involvement with cultural and societal artefacts in later life (Varga 2011. p.628). From this is it clear how threats to play are further considered to be a threat to “the child’s sense of existing as a person” (Winnicott, 1971. p.68).

Conclusion

The ability to play demonstrates numerous achievements, while the few mentioned in this essay are by no means the total extent. The above discussion consolidates achievements to imply functional aspects which are arguably optimal for the development of a person; In the Winnicottian model these include the ability to separate subjectivity from the objective world, for therapists to engage with child patients in the therapeutic work successfully and nurture the conditions inherent in integrating selfhood, personality and autonomy. Alternatively, developing abstract thought, utilizing mental representations and the operation of will-power and behavioural self-regulation are only some of the achievements observed through the Vygotskian approach.

While these theories have weakness in their validity, these abilities garnered through play nonetheless have important implications for the person’s whole life span development, as it was briefly referenced how absence of fundamental conditions in play can be correlated with deficits in developmental outcomes.

References

Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2015). Vygotskian and Post-Vygotskian Views on Children’s Play. American Journal Of Play, 7(3), 371–388.

Bodrova, E., Germeroth, C., & Leong, D. J. (2013). Play and self-regulation: Lessons from Vygotsky. American Journal of Play, 6(1), 111.

Bornstein, M. (2013). Winnicott’s Contribution to my Psychoanalytic Development. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 33(1), 50–58. doi:10.1080/07351690.2013.743792

Cornell, W. F. (2015). Play at Your Own Risk: Games, Play, and Intimacy. Transactional Analysis Journal, 45(2), 79–90. doi:10.1177/0362153715586185

Modell, A.H. (2005) The Dead Mother Syndrome and the Reconstruction of Trauma. In Kohon, G. (Ed.). (2005). The dead mother: The work of André Green. Routledge.

Varga, S. (2011). Winnicott, symbolic play, and other minds. Philosophical Psychology, 24(5), 625–637. doi:10.1080/09515089.2011.559621

Vygotsky, L. S. (1967). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Soviet psychology, 5(3), 6–18.

Winnicott, D. W. (1971). Playing and reality. Psychology Press.

Zonzi, A., Barkham, M., Hardy, G. E., Llewelyn, S. P., Stiles, W. B., & Leiman, M. (2014). Zone of proximal development (ZPD) as an ability to play in psychotherapy: A theory-building case study of very brief therapy. Psychology & Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 87(4), 447–464. doi:10.1111/papt.12022

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