Early Welfare Capitalism and Sports
On the workout routine through the ages — Part 6 of 8
Industrial capitalism brought division of labor and routinization of work to give productivity a push. But spillover effects were soon to be seen. Marxism was on the rise, trade unions got to power, and companies started to provide welfare services to their employees — not only for economic reasons alone. Workers were allowed to play and exercise at generous sporting facilities established by their employers. However, working hours and occupational duties were of overriding importance. The workout routine had to comply.
In Britain, by the late Victorian period, team sports had evolved from peculiar and often wild and brutal folk games into rational recreation — an activity that all of a sudden was considered virtuous and beneficial for mental and physical health alike. The public school ethos created at Eton, Harrow, Winchester, and other such places became a de facto standard for the yet unwritten game rules and the major catalyst for the dissemination of sportsmanship across the country and abroad. And graduates of such elite places started to establish sports clubs outside schools where they continued to enjoy their favorite leisure activities and exercise practices during their professional lives. But some clubs displayed social discrimination and elitism which excluded blue-collar workers from membership. Rowing for instance had become a sport dominated by the middle class alone.
Ironically, the social exclusion presented an opportunity for recreation, specifically sports, to be provided to the working class by the workplace — a trend that gained momentum during the second half of the 19th century. Welfare capitalism delivered the rationale for the factory owners to go for it. On the one side, it was perceived as a moral duty that came from a sense of paternalism and was substantiated this way — often with religious overtones. On the other side, the provision of welfare services including medical treatment, holidays, pension, education, and active recreation had also sound economic grounds. A contented workforce and an attractive working environment were seen as effective measures to recruit and retain employees. It was also important for the development of the company culture and work ethic. And from the perspective of managerial control welfare services were instrumental in keeping trade unions in check.
Colman’s, the mustard manufacturer of Norwich and one of the oldest existing food brands in Britain provided sports facilities for its workforce as early as 1864, thus even earlier than Cadbury did it — the famous chocolate maker and the company that serves as the ruling case study if one seeks more information about welfare capitalism. The founding family were keen cricketers and this was one reason — alongside their religious convictions — why they encouraged others to be physically active during leisure time. In 1872 the company bought spacious land in the nearby area and started to build new multi-sport facilities. To accentuate the scale of the project, until 1907 the estate had been developed to include playing fields for eleven football and ten cricket teams. In addition, Colman’s supplied jerseys at half price, all gym equipment for free, and a boat house where employees could store their boats. The attendance at the brand-new clubhouse averaged 250 visitors per day and some 600 people trained at the gym each week. All this was indeed an extreme example. But it followed a general trend.
In the early 19th century working hours were long with little time for an elaborated workout routine. Nevertheless, at Cadbury for example, for teen workers physical education was compulsory. Boys had to go to the gym twice a week for half-hours during working time. Girls were required to attend gymnastics and swimming classes for two half-hours a week. And all new employees were given a booklet with “suggested rules of health” and therein the advice to go for a walk or otherwise exercise outdoors for at least half an hour each day.
Back then the standard was that employees spent twelve hours at the workplace. At Colman’s people worked six days a week from 6.00 am to 6.00 pm with breaks of an hour and a half. Cadbury changed this schedule. It was the first company to close its factory on Saturday at mid-day and to introduce a half-holiday instead — what many other companies copied. More leisure time made more physical activity possible. This was especially true for organized team sports at facilities provided by the employer. Rugby, cricket, football, and other teams played local sides — usually in scheduled league competitions. In the 1891/2 season, Colman’s first cricket team played twenty fixtures, and the second team played twelve. The weekend quickly became central for routinized team sports activities.
Welfare services provided by companies were probably the most important stimulus for widespread female participation in organized sports activities. Because male and female workers were usually segregated at the workplace, no wonder that during leisure activities provided by the employer there was a careful differentiation between the sexes, too. Women and men played separate and usually different games, though Cadbury allowed mixed tennis. Female employees took part in swimming, gymnastics, and cycling, they played hockey, netball, and cricket. But all this separated from men.
Colman’s was among those enlightened companies to make special provisions for female staff quite early on. The company catered for female hockey and netball at the new multi-sport facilities that opened in 1907. It also provided a separate gym for women where they were taught gymnastics (Ling’s drill) and dancing. And the First World War created even greater opportunities. As more women took up hitherto men’s jobs, they also encountered more possibilities to play games together after hours and engage in other physical activities provided by the employer. Unfortunately for many of them, peace brought men back to work and women back home. Consequently, female sporting opportunities got downsized accordingly.
Main source: Roger Munting (2003) The Games Ethic and Industrial Capitalism Before 1914: The Provision of Company Sports. Sport in History, 23(1), pp. 45–63.
