Solar Storms and Their Impact on Satellites
On May 10, the Sun sent out an impactful solar flare, which, according to NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory, peaked at its highest at 2:54 a.m. ET.
Even though this happened nine days ago, there is a question of how many people worldwide now see the aurora lights.
This is an exhilarating moment for all of us, arguably more exciting than the solar eclipse since this is an uncommon event in several locations lasting up to 3 hours.
Now, let us look at how this phenomenon occurs, how it impacts our satellites, and how we can protect them.
A solar flare is an extreme explosion on the Sun that happens when the energy stored in the Sun’s ‘twisted’ magnetic fields, usually located above sunspots, is unexpectedly released.
In just a few minutes, they instantly heat the material to millions of degrees and create a massive burst of radiation beyond the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from radio waves, X-rays, and intense gamma rays.
(ESA, 2019) states that These solar flares are classified as:
X-class flares: These are the biggest and most significant that can trigger radio blackouts around our globe and almost everlasting radiation storms in the Earth’s upper atmosphere.
M-class flares: Medium-sized ones produce brief radio blackouts that affect our Earth’s polar regions. M-class flares also cause minor radiation storms.
C-class flares are small and have few consequences compared to the other big X and M-class flares. If these reach their highest point, they will still have 10x less potential and be more potent than an M-class flare.
B-class flares: 10x smaller/weaker than C-class flares.
A-class flares: The last flares are at most 10x less extreme than B-class flares, with barely noticeable consequences on our planet.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) classifies these from G-1 (weakest) to G-5 (most intense)
Numbers follow how we classify the strength of these flares, so the higher the number, the more powerful and impactful the flare!
In order to understand the space weather of our universe and how solar activity affects Earth, we also need to understand CMEs (Coronal Mass Ejections), solar flares, storms, their distinction, and geomagnetic storms and the effects of space weather on satellites from Miteva et al. (2023)
Solar flares release energy that affects the Earth’s ionosphere, disrupting radio communications and creating ionized particles. The electromagnetic radiation from the Sun’s solar flares directly affects our ionosphere, the upper charged layer of Earth’s atmosphere. Unfortunately, these also affect our radio communications.
CMEs are large clouds of magnetized plasma that can deform the Earth’s magnetic field, leading to compass unreliability. Moreover, the CMEs can take up to 3–5 days to reach Earth after a flare.
These above are drivers of space weather. These are distinct regarding how solar flares and storms are related.
A solar flare is a sudden and fierce release of up to 10²⁵ J of energy on the surface of the Sun caused by the buildup and sudden release of magnetic energy. SF’s electromagnetic radiation takes 8 minutes to arrive at Earth, causing space weather effects.
On the other hand, a solar storm is an expandable term that refers to a disturbance on the Sun that can affect the entire Solar System, Earth, and its magnetosphere. Solar flares, CMEs, or other solar activity phenomena derive from Solar Storms. These also release large amounts of energy, just like solar flares.
Geomagnetic storms result from solar flares or CMEs and can cause power outages and damage communication satellites.
Satellite Orbits
Every object in orbit around the Earth. The ring represents objects in geostationary orbit, such as comms satellites. NASA
According to the European Space Agency (ESA, 2020), there are different types of orbits, including geostationary, medium Earth orbit, and low Earth orbit.
Geostationary (GEO) circles Earth above the equator from west to east following Earth’s rotation, which takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds by traveling at the same rate as Earth. Most GEO-located satellites are used for telecommunication and weather monitoring since they can continually observe specific areas.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) compromises a wide range of orbits between LEO and GEO. Like LEO, it does not need to take specific paths around Earth and is used by various satellites with more than one application.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is relatively close to Earth’s surface. At an altitude of <1000 km, it could even be as low as 160 km above Earth.
Polar and Sun-synchronous Orbits pass over the Earth’s poles. A satellite in a polar orbit travels from north to south, passing over one or both of the Earth’s poles on each orbit. This type of orbit helps observe the entire Earth’s surface over time as the satellite passes over different longitudes in each orbit. Polar orbits are often used for weather satellites, Earth imaging, and other scientific research.
Solar Phenomena and Their Effects on Satellites
According to Miteva, Rositsa et al., Solar flares, storms, and geomagnetic storms can impact satellites by causing disruptions in communication systems, affecting satellite electronics, and increasing atmospheric drag on low Earth orbit satellites.
Satellites in low Earth orbit often experience increased atmospheric drag due to atmospheric expansion during geomagnetic storms.
Radiation exposure from energetic particles can damage satellite electronics and optical systems.
Orbital stability also takes part in a satellite’s downfall due to changes in orbit from atmospheric drag and radiation pressure.
Satellite Operations During Periods of High Solar Activity
Wikipedia (2024) described the 2003 Halloween solar storms and their effects on Satellite operations during high solar activity periods, including increased atmospheric drag, EUV irradiance exposure, emissions from solar flares, and radiation exposure from energetic particles. These factors can contribute to satellite failures and cause orbital stability.
Some known historical events that demonstrate the significant damage to satellites are 2003’s Halloween Storms, which resulted in the malfunction of over 50 satellites and many effects on Earth. They also caused satellite communication blackouts, advised aircraft to avoid polar regions, and led to a one-hour power outage in Sweden. Aurorae were seen as far south as Texas and the Mediterranean. Spacecraft like SOHO and ACE were affected, and astronauts on the ISS had to seek shelter from increased radiation. The storms were compared in intensity to the Carrington Event of 1859, providing valuable data on solar activity’s impact.
This event was significant because it is massive 17 major solar flares from very intense sunspot groups, with the largest one measuring 13 times the size of Earth. A severe geomagnetic storm triggered by a CME increased atmospheric drag, causing the satellites to lose their calculated orbits and re-enter Earth’s atmosphere, destroying 40 to 49 new SpaceX Starlink meant to provide high-speed internet services from space.
How do Satellite Operators Monitor Solar Activity to Predict Potential Impacts on Satellites?
Satellite operators monitor solar activity to predict potential impacts on satellites by utilizing physics-based forecasting schemes tailored to specific operational needs.
They also consider the development of models of the magnetospheric response during geomagnetic storms and analyze the coupling between the thermosphere, ionosphere, and atmosphere. Monitoring the solar-activity-driven influences, such as electromagnetic emissions, energetic particles, and geomagnetic storms, helps operators anticipate potential risks to satellite performance and longevity.
Mitigating the Effects
Satellite operators may delay launches, develop physics-based forecasting models, consider higher staging orbits, and invest in improved propulsion systems to counteract atmospheric drag. These strategies aim to ensure satellite reliability, maintain orbital stability, and mitigate the impact of solar activity on satellite performance.
Fortunately, mitigation strategies can be beneficial in improving the success rate of satellites in enduring space weather.
Radiation-Hardened Components
According to “Investigation of radiation hardened SOI wafer fabricated by ion-cut technique” (Chang, Yongwei, et al. 2018) Radiation-hardened components, particularly those utilizing Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) technology, are crucial for mitigating the effects of space weather on satellites. SOI technology offers enhanced resistance against transient radiation and single-event effects compared to standard components, making it ideal for space applications where radiation exposure is a concern.
One key feature of radiation-hardened components is the presence of electron traps, which compensate for radiation-induced net positive charges. These traps reduce the sensitivity to total ionizing (TID) radiation that satellites may encounter in space, enhancing their overall radiation tolerance.
The low-energy implantation of Si ions in SOI wafers plays a pivotal role in creating these electron traps. By optimizing the Si implantation dose, engineers can achieve the desired radiation tolerance, ensuring the reliability of satellite components and systems in the harsh space environment.
In satellite design, incorporating radiation-hardened components significantly improves resilience to space weather. This leads to increased longevity and performance in orbit, which is crucial for maintaining satellite functionality over extended periods.
The benefits of using radiation-hardened components extend to superior device quality, reduced threshold voltage shifts, and improved total dose tolerance. These factors contribute to better satellite performance and reliability in space, which is essential for mission success.
Specific experimental results, such as threshold voltage shifts and current-voltage characteristics, demonstrate the effectiveness of radiation-hardened components in reducing shifts and maintaining stable operation under radiation exposure. Observing silicon nanoparticles (Si-NCs) and confirming electron traps provide tangible evidence of the radiation hardening process’s effectiveness in enhancing the radiation tolerance of SOI wafers.
Additionally, radiation-hardened satellite components, even for satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO) and shallow Earth orbit (VLEO), can minimize failure risks during periods of high solar activity. These strategies aim to maximize the spacecraft’s nominal lifetime, ensure reliable services, and mitigate the impact of space debris pollution.
In conclusion, using radiation-hardened components, particularly those based on SOI technology, is vital for ensuring satellite resilience to space weather. These components are critical in enhancing satellite reliability and performance in the challenging space environment. There are many other ways to protect satellites which will be covered in the next article. Thank you for reading!
Works Cited
Chang, Yongwei, et al. “Investigation of Radiation Hardened SOI Wafer Fabricated by Ion-Cut Technique.” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, vol. 426, no. 426, 1 July 2018, pp. 1–4, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168583X18302660?via%3Dihub, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2018.04.021.
European Space Agency. “ESA — What Are Solar Flares?” Esa.int, 2019, www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/What_are_solar_flares.
— -. “Types of Orbits.” Esa.int, 30 Mar. 2020, www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Transportation/Types_of_orbits.
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Miteva, Rositsa, et al. “Space Weather Effects on Satellites.” Astronomy, vol. 2, no. 3, 1 Sept. 2023, pp. 165–179, www.mdpi.com/2674-0346/2/3/12, https://doi.org/10.3390/astronomy2030012.
NASA/WMAP Science Team. “What Is a Lagrange Point? — NASA Science.” Science.nasa.gov, 18 Mar. 2018, science.nasa.gov/resource/what-is-a-lagrange-point/.
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Wetzel, Corryn. “Solar Storm Knocks 40 SpaceX Satellites out of Orbit.” Smithsonian Magazine, 14 Feb. 2022, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/solar-storm-knocks-40-spacex-satellites-out-of-orbit-180979566/.
Wikipedia. “2003 Halloween Solar Storms.” Wikipedia, 14 May 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_Halloween_solar_storms#/media/File:ExtremeEvent_20031026–00h_20031106–24h.jpg. Accessed 19 May 2024.
Winfrey, Tiffany. “Solar Flares a Threat to Communication Systems, Geomagnetic Storms May Damage More Satellites in the Coming Years.” Science Times, Science Times, 2 Apr. 2022, www.sciencetimes.com/articles/36938/20220402/science-of-solar-flares-heres-how-geomagnetic-storms-could-easily-destroy-internet-satelllites.htm. Accessed 19 May 2024.
