Practical Applications of Schwartz’s Theory of Basic Human Values

Shalom H. Schwartz, an eminent social psychologist, has made noteworthy contributions to our understanding of human values and their influence on behavior and attitudes, notably via the Theory of Basic Values.

While retired, he continues researching and promoting the theory across different fields of applications.

I stumbled upon it and wanted to offer a review, linking it to a practice like Marketing. See if there’s consistent utility.

What is a Value?

A value, in psychological terms, is a principle or quality that an individual holds in high regard and considers important. These values can shape a person’s attitude and behavior, influencing decisions and actions.

(As we imply here, these are different concepts from values. See this article by Schwartz himself on the topic for an explanation).

Schwartz is rather prolific in producing content and promoting his own theory. (I get the need for academic to make sure their work goes outside of university walls, though).

So another article by Schwartz himself outlines the 6 main features of values:

1. Values are beliefs linked inextricably to affect. When values are activated, they become infused with feeling.

2. Values refer to desirable goals that motivate action.

3. Values transcend specific actions and situations. This distinguishes values from norms and attitudes that usually refer to specific actions, objects, or situations.

4. Values serve as standards or criteria. Values guide the selection or evaluation of actions, policies, people, and events. People decide what is good or bad, justified or illegitimate, worth doing or avoiding, based on possible consequences for their cherished values. But the impact of values in everyday decisions is rarely conscious. Values enter awareness when the actions or judgments one is considering have conflicting implications for different values one cherishes.

5. Values are ordered by importance relative to one another. People’s values form an ordered system of priorities that characterize them as individuals.

6. The relative importance of multiple values guides action. Any attitude or behaviour typically has implications for more than one value. The trade-off among relevant, competing values guides attitudes and behaviours. Values influence action when they are relevant in the context (hence likely to be activated) and important to the actor.

The theory

Schwartz’s Theory of Basic Human Values offers a universal model outlining ten broad values that steer human behavior. These include power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security.

1. Power, in this context, refers to the pursuit of social status, dominance, and control over people and resources.
2. Achievement is the personal pursuit of success, demonstrating competence according to social standards.
3. Hedonism encompasses the pursuit of pleasure, enjoyment, and sensory and emotional gratification.
4. Stimulation seeks novelty and challenge in life, valuing excitement, variety, and adventure.
5. Self-direction refers to independent thought and action — choosing, creating, and exploring.
6. Universalism embodies understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and nature.
7. Benevolence represents preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact (the ‘in-group’).
8. Tradition refers to respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion provide the self.
9. Conformity is the restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms.
10. Lastly, security encompasses safety, harmony, and stability of society, relationships, and the self.

Schwartz arranged these values using a circumplex model, a conceptual structure often used in psychology to represent circular relationships between variables. In this model, values close to each other on the circle share motivational goals, while values on opposite sides conflict with each other. For example, values of self-direction and stimulation are adjacent, indicating a shared motivation for independence and novelty, while these values are opposite to security and conformity, suggesting a conflict between the desires for autonomy and stability.

https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1116&context=orpc

Schwartz’s theory extends beyond Social Learning Theory (SLT) and Social Cognition Theory (SCT), both of which were spearheaded by Albert Bandura. Social Learning Theory suggests that people learn behaviors by observing others and imitating their actions. On the other hand, Social Cognition Theory highlights the role of cognitive processes, such as attention, memory, and interpretation, in learning and executing behavior.

Schwartz’s theory, however, posits that universal values learned within a social context guide behavior. It adds a unique perspective to these theories by proposing that these values are internalized by individuals as they observe the consequences of value-driven actions in their social environments and perceive certain values as most beneficial or rewarding.

The Theory in Marketing

In the realm of marketing, Schwartz’s theory is highly applicable. It aids in market segmentation, which is the process of dividing a market of potential customers into groups or segments based on different characteristics. The segments created are composed of consumers who will respond similarly to marketing strategies and who share traits such as similar interests, needs, or locations. In this case, market segments are determined based on shared values among consumers.

In creating advertising messages, marketers can also benefit from understanding consumer values. Advertising messages crafted to resonate with the target audience’s values are likely to be more compelling and persuasive. For example, an advertisement emphasizing the value of achievement might feature a successful individual who used a particular product or service to attain their success.

Cross-cultural marketing refers to the practice of marketing between different cultures and countries. The cross-cultural validation of Schwartz’s theory enables marketers to understand consumer behavior across different cultures, allowing for more effective international marketing campaigns. For instance, values like conformity, tradition, and benevolence tend to be more prominent in collectivist cultures, such as many Asian societies.

In contrast, individualistic cultures, like those in Western countries, often place a higher emphasis on values such as self-direction and stimulation.

Luna and Gupta’s study in 2001 demonstrated this difference in value emphasis. They found that advertisements that highlighted self-enhancement values (power and achievement) were more positively received in individualistic societies, while advertisements that emphasized self-transcendence values (universalism and benevolence) resonated more in collectivist societies.

However, it’s essential to note that not all individuals within a particular value group or culture will behave the same way, as personal experiences and contexts can lead to behavioral variations. Hence, marketers should exercise caution and avoid overgeneralization when applying these principles.

Influences on the Theory

The influences shaping Schwartz’s theory are wide and varied. One major influence was Milton Rokeach’s work, which led to the creation of the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS). Rokeach classified human values into two categories: terminal values, which are desirable end-states of existence, and instrumental values, which are the preferred modes of behavior to achieve these states.

Another influential work is by Geert Hofstede, who identified five dimensions of national culture. These dimensions were derived from a large database of employee value scores collected within IBM during the 1960s and 1970s and include power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation.

Schwartz’s theory built upon these preceding models, proposing a unique circular structure for values reflecting their motivational similarities and conflicts. This structure provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding human values and behavior.

Despite its wide acceptance and numerous applications, Schwartz’s theory has critics. Some suggest that it may not be completely universal or comprehensive, proposing the addition of values like ambition or creativity. Others argue that the interpretation of values can vary significantly across cultures, and this variability may not be adequately represented in the theory. Yet, Schwartz’s theory remains a powerful tool for understanding human values and behaviors and continues to evolve as it is applied in various cultural, political, and environmental contexts.

Further Readings

I found this whole idea compelling.

But there are several resources to get into the academic part of the theory if you want to deepen your knowledge.

Rather than paraphrase others’ work, I will end by inviting any marketer reading this to consider his role from a more holistic (I don’t like the word, but you get me now) perspective; perhaps use first-principles thinking.

If we want a message to resonate with an audience, yes we may keep in mind the axioms we have about the mental and physical availability, but there’s a creative component in interpreting cultures, historical moments, and context that is highly powered up by a psychological perspective on the task.

Knowing that your audience in a certain country, society, or similar has certain Values that tend, on average, to be different and unique in their hierarchical structure, will help you guide and prioritize. Even discard ideas altogether, when clearly off. When’s that? A reading of the context will tell.

References:

• Kahle, L. R. (1983). Social values and social change: Adaptation to life in America. Praeger Publishers.
• Homer, P. M., & Kahle, L. R. (1988). A structural equation test of the value-attitude-behavior hierarchy. Journal of personality and social psychology, 54(4), 638.
• Cleveland, M., Laroche, M., & Papadopoulos, N. (2009). Cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and materialism: An eight-country study of antecedents and outcomes. Journal of International Marketing, 17(1), 116–146.
• Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 1–65). Academic Press.
• Fischer, R., & Schwartz, S. (2011). Whence differences in value priorities? Individual, cultural, or artifactual sources. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(7), 1127–1144.
• Maio, G. R. (2010). Mental representations of social values. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 42, pp. 1–43). Academic Press.
• Schwartz, S. H., Cieciuch, J., Vecchione, M., Davidov, E., Fischer, R., Beierlein, C., … & Konty, M. (2012). Refining the theory of basic individual values. Journal of personality and social psychology, 103(4), 663.
• Vignoles, V. L., Owe, E., Becker, M., Smith, P. B., Easterbrook, M. J., Brown, R., … & Lay, S. (2016). Beyond the ‘east–west’ dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(8), 966.
• Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 1–65). Academic Press.
• Schwartz, S. H., Cieciuch, J., Vecchione, M., Davidov, E., Fischer, R., Beierlein, C., … & Konty, M. (2012). Refining the theory of basic individual values. Journal of personality and social psychology, 103(4), 663.
• Schwartz, S. H., & Bardi, A. (2001). Value hierarchies across cultures: Taking a similarities perspective. Journal of cross-cultural psychology, 32(3), 268–290.