Arrival of Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the Indian Subcontinent

Introduction: In the early 11th century, around 1001 A.D., Mahmud Ghaznavi initiated a series of expeditions into the Indian subcontinent, then ruled by Raja Jayapala of the Hindu Shahi Dynasty of Gandhara, situated in modern Afghanistan. Mahmud Ghaznavi, who reigned over the Ghaznavid Empire from 998 to 1030, was born in Ghazni, a town in the Zabulistan region of present-day Afghanistan. His early years saw him accompanying his father, Sabuktigin, to battles, setting the foundation for the Ghaznavid Dynasty. Mahmud Ghaznavi earned a formidable reputation as an invincible military commander. Launching seventeen successful campaigns into South Asia, he consistently returned to Ghazni with conquering victories. His rivals, including Jaipal, Annadpal, Tarnochalpal, Kramta, and coalitions of Hindu Rajas and Maharajas, were compelled to flee the battlefield due to Mahmud’s strategic prowess.

Accomplishments:

A important early victory occurred on 28 November 1001 during the Battle of Peshawar, where he defeated Raja Jayapala of the Kabul Shahis. In 1002, Mahmud invaded Sistan, deposing Khalaf ibn Ahmad and ending the Saffarid dynasty. He then shifted his attention to Hindustan, particularly the fertile Punjab region, after defeating the Indian Confederacy. In response to their collective resistance, Mahmud embarked on frequent campaigns, entrusting the governance of conquered territories to Hindu vassals while annexing only the Punjab region. He also committed to annually plundering the prosperous northwestern Indian territory. Mahmud’s actions during the closing years of the tenth century and the early years of the following century, as detailed in Al –Baruni’s book involved a series of invasions into Gandhara, specifically the Peshawar valley, as part of his proselytizing missions into Hindustan. In the book he says: Now in the following times no Muslim conqueror passed beyond the frontier of Kabul and the river Sindh until the days of the Turks, when they seized the power in Ghazna under the Sâmânî dynasty, and the supreme power fell to the lot of Nasiraddaula Sabuktagin. This prince chose the holy war as his calling, and therefore called himself al-Ghazi In 1014, Mahmud led an expedition towards Thanesar. The following year, he launched an unsuccessful attack on Kashmir, driven by a desire for retribution against the ruler, Sangram raja, who had supported the Hindu Shahis against the Ghaznavids. Provoked by Sangram raja’s assistance to Trilochanapala, Mahmud undertook an invasion of Kashmir. His intended entry through the Tosa Maidan pass, advancing along the Tohi river valley, was thwarted by the formidable Loharkot fortress. After a fruitless month-long siege, Mahmud withdrew, enduring substantial troop losses and personal peril. In 1021, he made a second attempt to invade Kashmir but could not bypass the Loharkot fortress, prompting him to abandon further conquest efforts in Kashmir. Mahmud’s infamous desecration of the Somnath temple in Gujarat in 1024 CE led Rajput king Bhoja to mobilize an army against him. However, Mahmud chose a riskier route through Sindh to evade Bhoja’s formidable forces, resulting in significant casualties due to scarcity of food and water in the desert.

His reputation and social Position in the sub-continent: Mahmud Ghaznavi, regarded as a pioneer of the Islamic faith, opposed the Hindu belief system. Under his rule, Ghazni and Lahore flourished as centres of learning and culture. He established a robust Muslim empire, exposing the vulnerabilities of Hindu rajas and paving the way for future Muslim conquests in India. He was celebrated as a hero by South Asian Muslims for his courage and role in strengthening the Muslim state. Mahmud also weakened neighbouring rulers, deterring them from attacking the newly established Muslim states. The spoils of war boosted the empire’s power. After conquering Multan and Lahore in 1021, Mahmud incorporated Punjab into his empire and established Lahore as his provincial headquarters. Mahmud Ghaznavi was a notable patron of learning, with figures like the poet Firdousi, historian Behqi, and scholar-scientist Al-Biruni associated with his court. Ghazni emerged as a significant and aesthetically pleasing city in the Islamic world, while Lahore became a major centre of education and culture. According to the article written by BRITANNICA : “Mahmud was the first to carry the banner of Islam into the heart of India. To some Muslim writers he was a great champion of his faith, an inspired leader endowed with supernatural powers. Most Indian historians, on the other hand, emphasize his military exploits and depict him as “an insatiable invader and an intrepid marauder.” Mahmud, a deeply religious man, authored a book on Fiqh and respected other religions. Ghazni had a Hindu commander named Tilak, and several Hindu soldiers served in his army. Mahmud’s attacks on Hindu Temples in India were driven by political rather than religious motives. Mahmud Ghaznavi passed away on April 30, 1030, AD.

GHURID DYNASTY

Introduction: Ghurid Dynasty is a Persianized dynasty that originated from modern day Afghanistan in the 8 th century and lasted up to 12th century. They came from Ghor –region and initially were appointed cheifs.They converted to Islam after Mahmud Ghaznavi took rule of the area. The Ghurids eventually overran the Ghaznavids when Muhammad of Ghor took hold of Lahore and Forced the Ghaznavids out of their final rule. During the last years rule of Ghaznavids, there was a strong rivalry going on between the Ghaznavids and Seljuks due to which there was a void of power in modern day Afghanistan and Punjab. The ghurids took over this area and started their territorial expansion after that. The chief in charge at that time Ala al-Din Husayn ended the Ghurid subordination to the Ghaznavids, but soon was defeated by the Seljuks as he stopped paying tribute to them. After his death his nephew’s — Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad and Muhammad of Ghor took over the empire and did remarkable work during their rule. At its peak, the Ghurid empire expanded to its largest territorial expanse, covering regions stretching from eastern Iran to the easternmost parts of India.

Arrival to India: On the eve of the Ghurid invasion of the subcontinent, the northern India was ruled by many independent Rajput kings, often fighting with each other, such as the Chahamana ruler Prithviraja III in Delhi and Ajmer, the Chaulukya ruler Mularaja II in Gujarat. Northern India and Bengal were conquered by Muhammad of Ghor during the period from 1175 to 1205, just before his death in 1206. In 1175, Muhammad crossed the Indus River, approaching it through the Gomal Pass instead of Khyber Pass, in order to outflank the Ghaznavids in Panjab. Muhammad captured Multan from the Carmathians, and also took Uch by 1176. In 1178, he turned south and again marched through the Gomal Pass, marching by the way of Multan and Uch to enter into the present-day Gujarat via Thar desert.

Achievements: Afterwards, Muhammad pressed upon the Ghaznavids, whose domain was considerably truncated, though they were still controlling parts of Punjab and Pakistan down to the valley of Kabul which were of strategic importance in the pathway to northern India. Thus by the turn of next decade, Muhammad conquered Sindh, Peshawar, Sialkot and annexed the last Ghaznavid principality in Punjab, with their capital in Lahore, in 1186 through stratagem after three incursions. REFERNCE :Wink, Andre (1991). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest . In 1194, Muhammad returned to India and crossed the Yamuna River with an army of 50,000 horses and at the Battle of Chandawar defeated the forces of the Gahadavala king Jayachandra, who was killed in action. After the battle, Muhammad continued his advance to the east, with his general Qutb ud-Din Aibak in the vanguard. The city of Benares (Kashi) was taken and razed, and “idols in a thousand temples” were destroyed. It is generally thought that the Buddhist city of Sarnath was also ravaged at that time. In 1202–1203 CE, Qutbu l-Din Aibak, now Ghurid governor of Delhi, invaded the Chandela kingdom in the Ganges Valley.The Ghurids toppled local dynasties and destroyed Hindu temples during their advance across northern India, in place constructing mosques on the same sites. REFERENCE: Eaton, Richard M. (2019). India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 Reputation in the Indian Muslims: To some Muslims, particularly those who emphasize the spread of Islam, Muhammad Ghori is regarded as a conqueror and a key figure in expanding the influence of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. Some Muslims see Muhammad Ghori as a pioneer who laid the foundation for the subsequent Muslim dynasties in the subcontinent, including the Delhi Sultanate. They credit him with initiating Muslim rule and governance in the region. However, opinions about Muhammad Ghori are not universally positive. Some Muslims may view him with reservations due to the brutal nature of some of his military campaigns, including the destruction of temples and religious sites. His military actions, particularly the conquest of Delhi and the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, are subjects of historical debate and differing interpretations.