Life in the Trenches — Trench Warfare in WWI
Structure and Design of Trenches
Trenches began as deep holes in the ground as a source of cover against enemy firepower (Ellis 9). The first form of trench were shallow depressions in the ground created for temporary use. In January 1915, the British began constructing parapets, also known as command trenches (Ellis 12). Command trenches, also known as box trenches by the Germans, were at most one to two feet deep. The rest of the trench was built using sandbags to make a wall-like barrier at least seven to eight feet tall and six to seven feet wide. The walls were made to be as thick as possible in order for it to be able to absorb and endure any bullets and shell fragments. Command trenches were typically used in areas where the water level was near the surface, which made it impossible to dig a deep hole in the ground like typical front-line trenches
Outline of the Trenches
Regardless of whether the trench was dug or built and of whether it was made by the British, French or German, all trenches were designed using same basic outline (Ellis 12).
- The front of the trench was known as a parapet, which was generally about ten feet high and at the top had a thick line of sandbags (Ellis 12). In order for the soldiers to be able to see and fire over the top of the parapet, they built a two to three foot high ledge known as the fire step (Ellis 13). The back wall of the trench was known as the parados and was raised by using sandbags (Ellis 13).
- In order to prevent the sides of the trench from collapsing, the soldiers would support the parapet and parados using natural materials, such as sandbags and timber (Ellis 13).
Shape of the Trenches
The trenches were broken into smaller sections, each screened from the other by a barrier of earth and sandbag that were raised above the earth (Ellis 14). The straight sections of the trench were known as firebays and were usually ten yards in length. Infantrymen would usually stand at the firebays when on duty or alert. The kinks in the line, also known as traverses, are what gives a trench its zig-zag or stepped like pattern.
“In the trenches it was fairly bad, they are so narrow and smelly and one is being potted at and shelled all the time.” — Lieutenant Harold William Cronin (1915)
As a result of early battles the western front stabilized, in the sense that it shifted from a war of movement to one characterized by trench warfare along an increasingly stalemated front; accordingly, battle tactics and strategy changed on both sides. Future battles would consist of large conscript armies facing each other from trenches, separated by barbed wire in no-man’s-land, and facing machine gun and sniper fire, artillery barrages, and over-the top raids. On the eastern front, the Italian Front, and the Middle East, large-scale battles were also ubiquitous but were characterized by movement rather than stalemate.
Natural Hardships
One of the hardships Soldiers faced was the heavy rainfall and muddy environment of the trenches. Soldiers were always at least ankle deep in mud and at least a foot deep in water (Ellis 44). It was also not uncommon for the water to rise and reach the men’s thighs. The water would generally mix with the earth to create thick mud that made even the smallest steps challenging.
“I fell over at least 20 times got smothered in mud from head to feet and on the top of that wet though for it rained in torrents.” — Jonathan George Symons (1915)
There were numerous cases of soldiers who have died because they drowned in the thick mud mixture (Ellis 45). Soldiers were in constant threat of miss stepping into a shell-hole and being slowly swallowed by the earth like in quicksand. There was little to no solutions to alleviate the detrimental effects of the rain and mud. In his letter, Lance Corporal James Davies recounted the time when his dugout had been flooded due to a very heavy rainstorm. The flooding of the trench caused the men to be exposed since they lost their cover.
Trench Foot
The wet conditions also allowed for major diseases to arise, such as trench foot (Ellis 48). Soldiers develop trench foot, because they stood in wet conditions for long periods of time without removing and replacing their wet socks or boots. The symptoms of trench foot were very similar to frostbite. “The feet would gradually go numb, turn red or blue, and in extreme cases gangrene would set in.” (Ellis 48) Most soldiers had to have their toes and even their entire foot amputated.
Filth and Stench
Another issue was the filth and smell that accumulated within the trenches. Trash, urine, excreta, and dead corpses littered the trenches (Ellis 52). Many soldiers were given shallow graves along the sides of the trenches. The disheveled state of the trenches combined with the unwashed state of the men produced various diseases and pestilence to emerge (Ellis 52).
“The fighting at one time was so fierce that there was only time just to bury the dead in the sides of the trenches, and now that the trenches have crumpled one is constantly seeing the bones of men’s legs or their boots, or skulls sticking out from the sides of the trenches” — Private Gilbert Williams (1916)
The corpses as well as the extensive amounts of food scrapes attracted many rodents and insects to infiltrate the trenches (Ellis 54). Rats were a major nuance. They contaminated the food and spread diseases, such as the Weil’s disease. In “All Quiet on the Western Front” a famous wartime novel, Paul Baumer and his troop were plagued by a mischief of rats, who were constantly eating the soldiers food. Baumer described the rats as having “shocking, evil, naked faces” (Baumer 102). During the soldiers free-time, they entertain themselves by creating traps to capture the rats so the soldiers can exterminate them. Regardless of how many rats the soldiers kill, the rats continue to run rampant in the trenches.
Lice also infested the trenches and we known to spread disease in the trenches. They caused frenzied scratching and the mass spread of trench fever (Ellis 57). A primary symptom was sharp pains in their shins and a high fever. Although trench fever was not fatal, the disease heavily drained the man power in the trenches. The remedy required six weeks for treatment and three months off duty.
Another insect that plagued the trenches were flies. The flies were particularly unpleasant in the summer and would constantly swarm about the dugouts and settle on any exposed surface, such as food and human bodies.
“There are millions and millions of flies here and they are all over everything. Put a cup of tea down without a cover and it is immediately covered with dead ones, they are all round your mouth and directly you open it to speak or to eat in they pop. It is a game.” — Lieutenant Harold William Cronin (1915)
Guns and Gas
There were massive numbers of casualties on both sides of the war, which were caused by the development of modern weapons. One of the developments was the technique and strategy regarding bombardments. In a light barrage, there were usually about half a dozen shells to land in the immediate vicinity every ten minutes (Ellis 62).
“One morning we were awakened by the most awful din, it seemed as though hell had broken loose, shells were falling like summer rain.” — Private Edward Henry Cecil Stewart (undated)
In a large bombardment, which was often the prelude to an enemy assault, twenty to thirty shells would land on a company sector every minute. For every three to four heavy explosives there would be one shrapnel to ensure that the troops kept under cover. The barrage would then pause and return five minutes later. The big bombardment was the source of both physical and mental torture. Multiple letters from WWI discussed the constant threat and damage done by the series of bombardments
“…just in front of our reserve trenches was a beautifully green field, and the next morning it was as much as one could do to see any grass at all, simply one mass of craters, varying in diameter from ten to twelve paces.” — — Private Edward Henry Cecil Stewart (undated)
Another development of modern warfare was the use of gas. Gas was a popular weapon in World War I (Ellis 65). The soldiers had to consider the wind direction, before firing in order to avoid poisoning their own troops. The first gas used was chlorine gas, but was later replaced by mustard gas, since it caused a greater number of casualties.
Chlorine gas caused soldiers to endure a slow death by asphyxiation. Mustard gas took longer for showcase its effects, but mustard gas had more severe consequences than chlorine gas. Mustard gas caused soldiers’ skin to blister, their eyes to become extremely painful, and nausea and vomiting to begin. The pain from mustard gas is excruciating. Most patients had to be strapped to their beds. In a WWI letter, a soldier described how he was hospitalized because he had not put his course respirator on in time during a barrage involving gas shells and shrapnel (Frost).
The Mental Effect
In war, man reverts to a primitive state based on fear, hunger and thirst (Ellis 44). Remarque also comments on the relationship between soldier and his stomach in “All Quiet on the Western Front”. “The soldier is on friendlier terms than other men with his stomach and intestines. Three-quarters of his vocabulary is derived from these regions… Our families and our teachers will be shocked when we go home, but here it is the universal language.” (Remarque 8) The soldiers alter themselves to acclimate to the horrors of war surrounding them. One of those changes include the lack standard social embarrassments such as going to the bathroom in front of others. Soldiers also become desensitized to the constant death and horrific scenes surrounding them.
Men relied on their instinct than any prior intellect or reasoning to survive on the battlefield. In “All Quiet on the Western Front”, the character Muller was known for his high intellect in the group. He was one of Paul Baumer’s classmates and served with Baumer in the Second Company. He would carry textbooks with him on the battlefield and during bombardments he would mutter propositions in physics (Remarque 3). After he died, Baumer wondered what was the use of Muller’s mathematical skills, when he was going to die on a battle field with a million of other men (Remarque 284). Muller’s situation showcases that higher education has no purpose during war. In order to survive the soldiers must rely on their animal instincts.
Work Cited
Brosnan, Matt, Paul Cornish, Nick Hewitt, Ian Kikuchi, Nigel Steel, and Jessica Talarico. “10 Significant Battles Of The First World War.” Imperial War Museums. Imperial War Museums, 3 Jan. 2018. Web. 02 Mar. 2018.
Cronin, Harold William. “Dardanelles: ‘Millions of Flies’.” Letter to Mr. Welsh. 3 Oct. 1915. MS. Dardanelles, Turkey.
Davies, James. “Trenches: ‘Towns Shelled to Pieces’.” Letter to Charles. 23 June 1916. MS. France.
Ellis, John. Eye-deep in Hell: Trench Warfare in World War I. New York: Pantheon, 1976. Print.
Frost, Richard Charles Stanley. “Trenches: ‘a Big Dose of Gas Shells’.” Letter to Mr. Hunt. 23 Aug. 1916. MS. Devonport, England.
Stewart, Edward Henry Cecil. “Trenches: ‘Up to Our Knees in Water’.” Letter to Bert. N.d. MS. France.
Symons, Jonathan George. “Trenches: ‘Up to Our Knees in Water’.” Letter to Bert. 10 Nov. 1915. MS. France.
Trench Warfare in World War 1 I THE GREAT WAR Special. Dir. David Doss. By Indiana Neidell. Perf. Indiana Neidell. Youtube. The Great War, 24 Nov. 2014. Web. 2 Mar. 2018.
Williams, Gilbert. “Trenches: ‘A Veritable Maze’.” Letter to Mr. Hunt. 6 Apr. 1916. MS. France.