Applied Research — Emotional Intelligence and Racial Discrimination
Racism Background and Effects
Despite efforts by many to reduce the perpetuation of racism in society, instances of racial discrimination are still pervasive and harmful to many, ultimately creating disproportionate physical and mental effects on those who are victimized. It has been proposed that the appearance of racism, however, has changed. While overt racist acts are perhaps less common, white supremacy is expressed in different ways. An article on contemporary racism suggests that the trend of “color blindness,” or the concept of “not seeing color,” is in itself racist. To say that one does not see color removes the responsibility of the person in the majority group from facing their own racist views and biases. Additionally, racist thoughts and actions are often hidden by rationalization or avoidance of conversations that deal with race, especially when those conversations are to be held with people of color. This can create an illusion of reduced racism when in reality it is simmering below the surface (Neville et al, 2013).
Additionally, structural racism impacts nearly all levels of life for people of color, from socioeconomic status to physical and mental health disparities. This is a multifaceted issue that is impacted by institutional mistrust, provider bias, deprivation of resources, and poverty (Beech et al., 2021). In sum, racism is expressed through individual acts as well as the entire system upon which the United States is built. The images below display the societal impacts of racism and the many ways in which racial hate can be expressed.
For those who face discrimination, persistent stress can be accompanied by a plethora of other negative impacts. Not only does chronic racial stress decrease general physical health, immunity, and quality of mental health, these experiences have been linked to psychotic-like experiences (PLE). PLE are defined as delusion or hallucinogenic-like experiences that occur below the clinical diagnosis line, but still cause negative effects in daily functioning. While somewhat prevalent in the general population, research has shown higher occurrence rates in Black individuals, who in turn are also more likely to develop clinical psychosis as a result (Espinosa, Anglin, & Pandit, 2012). This is a serious problem faced by people of color and is one of many examples of the way that racism reduces health and life quality for many. The image below summarizes the intersections between race, health, and poverty.
Due to these impacts, it is the responsibility of all to be aware of racism in society and the ways in which it occurs. Social workers, healthcare professionals, and psychologists especially should inform themselves of their own biases and tendencies in order to ensure the best care for their clients of color and increase their own ability to avoid perpetuating racism. It has been stated that “It is only in having these conversations that our professionals and society can truly achieve meaningful and measurable change” (Hilda, 2020).
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence (EI) is a broad topic, that in essence, consists of one’s ability to manage their own emotions as well as those of the people around them. When thinking of racism and the conversations that must occur to reduce it, EI can enable individuals to face their own emotions and handle difficult truths. EI consists of many components, some of which include perceptions, verbal comprehension, problem solving, reasoning skills, emotional tolerance, and empathy. These must all be integrated in order to have strong emotional skills. General intelligence is not always a predictor of interpersonal success and does not necessarily lead to upward social skills and mobility. On the other hand, EI is “purported to predict success in the real world above and beyond general intelligence” (Hogeveen, Salvi, & Gradman, 2016). Those who have high emotional intelligence are also more likely to report good mental health, success in their personal and professional lives, and improved problem solving. Those who utilize EI typically have strong emotional regulation skills and avoid maladaptive habits like suppressing emotions and avoiding situations that could provoke anxiety.
This link provides an overview of EI: What Is Emotional Intelligence? — YouTube
In children, EI is developed by exposure to emotion-based scenarios in the world around them. Higher level cognitive functioning is partially dependent on the development of emotional processes that children may observe and model from people and situations they see. Chystovska et al. discusses how emotions serve to help one assess their personal state, world around them, and social situations (2022). Without this deeper emotional understanding, a child (and later an adolescent or adult) might find it difficult to adapt to people around them or exercise persistence and impulse control. In children specifically, EI should be grown in a multifaceted way through parents, peers, teachers, other relatives or friends, and activities that a child engages in. Through this, it is also reasonably assumed that in adulthood, EI growth measures should also occur in multiple facets of life to be transferrable to a variety of social situations.
A 2019 study examining the effects of an EI training found that improvements were seen in a group of older adults. A group of 157 senior managers throughout a variety of businesses completed an EI training that was focused on increasing work performance and satisfaction through interpersonal skills. It seems worth noting that while lower-ranked employees were not included in the training, the high-ranking employees who were included would likely have the most ability to perpetuate racism on their employees through low EI. In this study, the researchers found improved self-rated work performance and satisfaction in many managers. Additionally, the assessments found growth in appropriate assertiveness, decision making, and improved positivity, which could be beneficial both in and out of the workplace (Gilar-Corbi et al., 2019).
Additionally, Gilar-Corbi et al. found that in an analysis of multiple programs, group trainings that involve face-to-face contact are especially effective. Additionally, in other trainings, mood, self-expression, and stress management all grew positively, while emotional understanding was shown to grow over time, if not immediately after the training. Together, these factors can form better empathy, which is essential for addressing self-perpetuation of racism. Other EI methods include growing acceptance of other people and their emotions, while decreasing distraction and avoidance methods. Distress tolerance, another essential aspect of EI, has been connected to more purposeful rumination, acceptance, and mindfulness (Naragon-Gainey, McMahon, & Chacko, 2017). These factors should be considered when looking at methods to improve EI in professionals, students, and the general public.
Ingroup and Outgroups
In-groups and out-groups are also connected to the perpetuation of racism throughout society, both interpersonally and structurally. Ingroups refer to those who typically belong to a majority or the most accepted group. In terms of racism, this is typically referring to the dominant white population, but may be impacted by other factors such as socioeconomic status, place of work, sex/gender, religion or other aspects of identity. Outgroups in this context consist of nonwhite individuals. Those in the ingroup tend to view themselves more leniently than those in the outgroup, and nonnormative behavior is viewed as more acceptable by members of that group (Leyens et al., 2000). For example, in the media, this is displayed through the portrayal of crime between white and Black individuals. White men, for example, are often described as younger than they are and as fathers, siblings, or professionals when they commit a crime. In other words, positive descriptors are more often used. On the other hand, Black boys tend to be described as men, implying that they are older that they are, along with other negative terms. The following link provides more details on this occurrence and provides a concrete example of ingroup and outgroup practices in the world:
Racial Bias and Media Coverage of Violent Crime — Sociological Images (thesocietypages.org)
Additionally, within ingroups, members are more likely to rate those like them as higher in intelligence and understanding. However, when considering outgroups, they are typically less associated with more complex/secondary emotions that could increase empathy and understanding across groups. This limits communication and establishes one group as “the” group, while devaluing and alienating the outgroup. This is sometimes referred to as “infrahumanization,” which in this case, can cause increased bias against people of color (Leyens et al, 2000). However, much of this process is automatic and requires emotional intelligence to recognize and examine.
This video provides a further explanation of ingroups and outgroups: In-group/Out-group | Ethics Defined — YouTube
When looking at automatic prejudice that harms people of color in the United States, the foremost task is to identify the bias that one has, even before addressing how to correct that prejudice (Lowery, Hardin, & Sinclair, 2021). In looking at current measures to assess bias, the Implicit Association Test (IAT) is commonly used. In this assessment, people are asked to associate certain stimuli with various groups of people. Typically, most assessment takers associate stimuli most like them or their ingroup as positive, and group membership and race/ethnicity is also shown to factor into the associations people report. While Van Ravenzwaaij, Vander Mass, & Wagenmakers discuss in their research the limitations of this assessment, it is a positive step toward individuals recognizing their own bias (2011). It is also important to note the impacts that social groups have on prejudice. As members of groups, people are highly susceptible to the expectations of their social group, especially when addressing race and prejudice/discrimination (Lowery, Hardin, & Sinclair, 2021). In examining this, finding ways to increase emotional intelligence to face bias and racism becomes essential.
Article discussing the role of social interactions on perspective: Ingroups and Outgroups: How Social Identity Influences People – Effectiviology
Emotional Intelligence and Awareness Improvements
In people of color who frequently face daily racism and discrimination, trait emotional intelligence is considered to be a way to address the negative impacts faces. Trait EI refers to the way one perceives situations and thus handles the emotions and reactions that are prompted by a situation. In other words, responding to an instance of racism in a way that one can control their own emotions as well of the emotions of the perpetuator. High trait EI involves avoiding maladaptive coping measures such as negative distraction and rumination, and instead focusing on self-ability to handle the situation and moving on. Having a strong sense of self and identity within one’s racial or ethnic group can also help curb the negative effects of discrimination (Espinosa, Anglin, & Pandit, 2022). This, however, places the responsibility of coping with discrimination on the discriminated rather than the person perpetuating that issue.
More emphasis should be placed on increasing the emotional intelligence and discomfort tolerance of white individuals in the majority group, as this is the most likely group to continue racist tendencies, whither overtly or through implicit bias. Being in the position of power allows this group to engage in power-evasion or avoid conversations and situations regarding race because their social position allows them to. This can lead to lower cultural empathy, discomfort when topics of race are brought up, and increased anger and fear toward other racial groups (Neville et al., 2013). Thus, a reasonable proposal to address the issue is that emotional intelligence training should be utilized at various stages of development, in multiple settings, and in groups of people. Based on the literature, the most effective trainings occur when people learn in groups, when participants are challenged to confront difficult emotions and learn to avoid dismissive habits, and continue over time to promote continuous growth. To see positive change in the area of racism, the discriminated group should not continually be expected to reduce their own symptoms and emotions due to racial trauma. Instead, the work should rest in the hands of the non-people of color to increase their own emotional intelligence to better recognize, confront, and reduce their own racial biases.
References
Beech, B. M., Ford, C., Thorpe, R. J., Jr, Bruce, M. A., & Norris, K. C. (2021). Poverty, Racism, and the Public Health Crisis in America. Frontiers in public health, 9, 699049. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.699049
Chystovska. Y., Babiak, O., Honcharovska, H., Borets, Y., Svitlana, D., & Savytska, O. (2022). Neuropsychological Means of Developing Emotional Intelligence in Children. BRAIN: Broad Research in Artificial Intelligence & Neuroscience, 13, 152–165. https://doi-org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.18662/brain/13.2/337
Espinosa, A., Anglin, D. M., & Pandit, S. (2022). Emotional self-efficacy informs the interrelation between discrimination, ethnic identity and psychotic-like experiences. Emotion, 22(6), 1347–1358. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000922\
Ford, B. Q., & Tamir, M. (2012). When getting angry is smart: Emotional preferences and emotional intelligence. Emotion, 12(4), 685–689. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027149
Gilar-Corbi R, Pozo-Rico T, Sánchez B, Castejón JL (2019) Can emotional intelligence be improved? A randomized experimental study of a business-oriented EI training program for senior managers. PLOS ONE 14(10): 224–254. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.02242544
Green, A. (2017, October 19). US vs THEM (Ingroup vs Outgroup). Medium. https://medium.com/@Talangor/us-vs-them-b0c43cb2cfee
Hilda, S. (2020). Racism has no place in our society. What about in the profession of educational psychology? Voices of Black and ethnic minority psychologists crying out during the racism pandemic saying: “Let us Breathe.” Clinical Schizophrenia & Related Psychoses, 14(4), 37.
Hogeveen, J., Salvi, C., & Grafman, J. (2016). ‘Emotional Intelligence’: Lessons from Lesions. Trends in neurosciences, 39(10), 694–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2016.08.007
Leyens, J.-P., Paladino, P. M., Rodriguez-Torres, R., Vaes, J., Demoulin, S., Rodriguez-Perez, A., & Gaunt, R. (2000). The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Personality & Social Psychology Review (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates), 4(2), 186–197. https://doi-org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_06
Love, D. (2015, December 2). Freddie Gray Described in the Media as “Son of an Illiterate Heroin Addict” Upholds a Longstanding Tradition of White Media Dehumanizing Black People. Atlanta Black Star. https://atlantablackstar.com/2015/12/01/freddie-gray-described-in-the-media-as-son-of-an-illiterate-heroin-addict-upholds-a-longstanding-tradition-of-white-media-dehumanizing-black-people/
Lowery, B. S., Hardin, C. D., & Sinclair, S. (2001). Social influence effects on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 842–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.8422
McCombs School of Business. (2018). Ethics Defined: In-group/Out-group. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkYJOYrNiSw
Naragon-Gainey, K., McMahon, T. P., & Chacko, T. P. (2017). The structure of common emotion regulation strategies: A meta-analytic examination. Psychological Bulletin, 143(4), 384–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000093
Neville, H. A., Awad, G. H., Brooks, J. E., Flores, M. P., & Bluemel, J. (2013). Color-blind racial ideology: Theory, training, and measurement implications in psychology. American Psychologist, 68(6), 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033282\
Shatz, I. (2023). Ingroups and Outgroups: How Social Identity Influences People — Effectiviology. Effectiviology. https://effectiviology.com/ingroup-outgroup/
The Society Pages. (2015). Racial Bias and Media Coverage of Violent Crime — Sociological Images. Thesocietypages.org. https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2015/04/09/racial-bias-and-media-coverage-of-violent-crime/
Van Ravenzwaaij, D., van der Maas, Han L. J., & Wagenmakers, E. (2011). Does the name-race Implicit Association Test measure racial prejudice? Experimental Psychology, 58(4), 271–277. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a0000933
What is emotional intelligence? (2023, September 15). Harvard Business School Online. https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=emotional+intelligencve&&view=detail&mid=02A7FF65215DF9BDB93502A7FF65215DF9BDB935&&FORM=VRDGAR&ru=%2Fvideos%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Demotional%2Bintelligencve%26FORM%3DHDRSC6
Wiesyk, A. (2019). Responding to racism guide. Irish Network against Racism; ENAR Ireland. https://inar.ie/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Responding-to-racism-guide-FINAL-2.pdf