Just one word — Plastics

Contents

Part A: Intro

1. Evolution of Plastics
2. Recycling Scam
3. Types of Plastics
4. Bioplastic Scame
5. Degradability vs. Biodegradability vs. Compostability
6. Plastic vs. Bioplastic vs. Biodegradable Plastic
7. Plastics → EDCs and Microplastics

Part B: Problem Scope

8. Problem’s status quo + root cause analysis

9. Opportunity cost & n-th order effects

10. History: What progress has been made in the past?

11. Gap Analysis: Why isn’t it solved already?

12. Incentives: Who wins vs. who loses?

Photo by Xavi Cabrera on Unsplash

Part A

Legos are a dream come true for many kinds (and adults :) because of their endless creative possibilities. These small units are colorful, and versatile, and can combine to make new structures. When you’re building with Legos, you can make anything you can imagine, a castle, spaceship, or even a robot, depending on the specific kind of pieces you have.

Like Legos, Polymers are a material made up of repeated smaller units. As the name suggests, poly means many, and mer means parts. Think of it like a (lego) train with different compartments that look the same. Each compartment would be called a monomer. These monomers are typically connected by covalent bonds, forming a long chain called a polymer sequence.

This simple concept led to one of history’s most revolutionary breakthroughs.

Plastics.

Plastics were created as an alternative to ivory and shell-based products when elephants were killed and turtles poached just to make billiard balls. Although endangering animals should have been a big enough reason to look for an alternative material, it actually wasn’t. These little ivory balls caused explosions when they hit each other at specific angles. Exploding pool tables were sadly not a cool party trick and thus began the global hunt for an alternative material.

|| Evolution of Plastics

1/ Shellac — Since the 1300s

Resin secreted by the female lac bug on trees is processed and sold as dry flakes.

Shellac is a resin secreted by female lac bugs and collected from trees. It comprises a mixture of polar and non-polar components and is usually processed and sold in dry, flaked form. To purify shellac, impurities, and natural waxes are removed, often re-moisturized with alcohol. Some companies add additional ingredients to extend the shelf life of their shellac products, but the exact nature of these additives is often kept secret. Clear shellac is made by dissolving the resin in sodium carbonate and then bleaching it with sodium hypochlorite.

Shellac is a thermoplastic material that can be molded with heat and pressure and is often used to bind wood flour. It is also used to coat wood, varnish, paint, nail polish, glass, ceramics, and even plastic. However, it has some limitations, including low heat resistance, poor resistance to water, solvents, chemicals, and brittleness. Despite significant research on shellac, there is still a lack of understanding about its precise structure and the way in which its constituent acids combine in a shellac molecule.

2/ Celluloid aka Parkesine — 1873

Celluloid is a type of plastic that was once widely used in the early 20th century for various applications such as film stock, combs, and jewelry. It is made from a mixture of cellulose and camphor and is formed by dissolving cellulose in a solution of camphor and a solvent, such as alcohol or acetone, and then poured into a mold. As the solvent evaporates, the celluloid solidifies and takes on the shape of the mold.

Celluloid has the advantage of being easily tinted and is a light, strong, and versatile material, but it is also highly flammable and not heavy enough for mass consumer use. Today, celluloid is primarily used for vintage items and collectibles. Celluloid is not biodegradable.

3/ Bakelite — 1907

Bakelite is a type of plastic developed in the early 20th century. It is made from a combination of phenol and formaldehyde. It is a hard, durable plastic resistant to heat and chemicals and was widely used in various applications, such as electrical insulators, jewelry, and kitchenware. It was also used to produce phonograph records and radio and television cabinets.

Today, Bakelite is valued for its durability and resistance to heat and chemicals, but it was once more widely used due to the development of other plastics. Bakelite has several advantages, including its strength, durability, heat resistance, chemical resistance, and non-toxicity. However, it also has several disadvantages, including its potential to burn under high temperatures, brittleness, limited color options, and limited flexibility. One of the most significant disadvantages of Bakelite is its inability to biodegrade.

4/ Nylon — 1938

Nylon is a synthetic polymer made from a combination of two chemicals: hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid. These chemicals are combined through a process called polymerization, in which the two chemicals' molecules react to form long chains of interconnected polymer molecules. Nylon has several advantages, including its strength, durability, and flexibility. It is also resistant to wear and tear and has a low coefficient of friction, making it useful for various applications, including clothing, ropes, and other items.

There are also some disadvantages to nylon. It could be a better conductor of heat and can be prone to melting or deforming at high temperatures. It is also not very resistant to UV light and can become brittle or yellow over time when exposed to sunlight. The production cost of nylon can vary depending on several factors, including the specific type of nylon produced and the quantities produced. Nylon is relatively inexpensive and widely used in various applications because of its low cost. Nylon is not biodegradable, so it does not break down naturally in the environment.

5/ Teflon — 1945

Teflon is a synthetic fluoropolymer that is made from a chemical called polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). It is a high molecular weight polymer composed of repeating units of fluorine and carbon atoms. Teflon has several advantages, including its excellent chemical and temperature resistance. It is also a low-friction material and is highly non-stick, making it useful for various applications, including the production of cookware and other items.

Teflon also has some disadvantages. It is a synthetic material that is not biodegradable. The production cost of Teflon can vary depending on several factors, including the specific type of Teflon being produced and the quantities being produced. Teflon is generally relatively expensive due to the high cost of the raw materials and the complex production process.

|| Recycling Scam

Plastics are one of the most widely used polymers; needless to say, they’re amazing. They’re extremely durable and cheap.

But that’s exactly what makes them a problem.

Because they’re durable and cheap, it takes a lot of energy to break the strong bonds in plastic polymers. As a result, plastics can be very resistant to degradation and take a long time to break down in the environment.

Essentially, we went from using paper bags, metal, and glassware to mass-producing this hot, new, colorful material and convincing people to use it in their everyday lives. What difference 60 years can make is truly astonishing.

Plastics went from nowhere to everywhere.

Plastics aren’t the problem—the plastic itself is great. It’s how it’s being thrown away and overproduced that is the problem. People realized that plastics were causing more harm to the environment than any other material. They demanded that industries stop producing plastic. This brings us to (in my opinion) the biggest environmental scam ever.

Recycling.

This is the symbol of recycling.

And these are the plastic classification symbols.

It’s no coincidence that they look similar. Although these symbols look identical to the recycling one, in reality, they aren’t even close to being the same thing. They were designed to trick people into believing that plastics are, in fact, recyclable.

This set of 7 symbols, known as the “plastic identification codes,” are used to help consumers and recycling facilities sort and process plastic products more efficiently. Each symbol represents a different type of plastic and is typically imprinted on the product along with the resin identification code. Types 1 and 2 can be recycled, but types 3–7 may only be recyclable under certain circumstances.

Plastics are classified into seven types based on the polymer/resin used. Each of these plastics has unique properties, such as strength, flexibility, transparency, and heat resistance, which make them suitable for different applications.

|| 7 Types of Plastics

1/ Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is a type of plastic made from the monomers ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. These monomers are polymerized to form long chains of PET, which can then be processed into various products. The chemical structure of PET consists of a repeating unit of two monomers with the chemical formula (C10H8O4)n. PET has several chemical properties that make it useful for many applications. It is a strong, lightweight material resistant to moisture, chemicals, and UV radiation.

It is also relatively easy to process and shape into different forms, making it a popular choice for packaging and manufacturing. PET is used to create a variety of products, including bottles for beverages, food containers, films, and textiles. It also makes packaging materials, such as blister packs, clamshell containers, automotive parts, and electronic components. PET is not biodegradable, so it does not break down naturally in the environment. However, it can be recycled, and many recycling programs accept PET bottles and other products made from PET.

2/ High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a polyolefin, a type of polymer made from simple alkene monomers. The carbon atoms are joined together in a zigzag pattern, forming a structure known as a polyethylene backbone. HDPE is resistant to many chemicals and is not easily attacked by acids or alkalis. It is also resistant to UV radiation and has a low moisture absorption rate. HDPE is used in plastic bottles, pipes, and plastic sheets. It is also used to manufacture toys, drums, and various containers. As for biodegradability, HDPE is not easily biodegradable.

3/ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a synthetic polymer made from the monomer vinyl chloride. The chemical structure of PVC consists of a long chain of carbon atoms, with chlorine atoms bonded to every other carbon atom. The chlorine atoms give PVC its characteristic white color, making it resistant to heat and sunlight. PVC is a strong and durable material resistant to water, oil, and many chemicals. It is also fire-resistant and easy to work with. PVC is used in various products, including pipes, siding, and window frames. It also manufactures toys, inflatable products, and medical devices. PVC is not readily biodegradable.

4/ Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a synthetic polymer made from the monomer ethylene. LDPE is flexible, strong, and resistant to many chemicals. It is also resistant to UV radiation, has a low moisture absorption rate, and isn’t biodegradable.

The main difference between LDPE and HDPE is the density of the polymer. LDPE has a lower density and is more flexible and stretchy than HDPE. HDPE has a higher density and is stronger and more rigid than LDPE. This density difference is due to how the polymer chains are arranged. In LDPE, the chains are more loosely packed, which allows for more flexibility. In HDPE, the chains are more tightly packed, which makes them stronger and more rigid.

5/ Polypropylene (PP)

Polypropylene (PP) is a synthetic polymer made from the monomer propylene. PP is used in various products, including automotive parts, packaging materials, and household items. It is also used to manufacture toys, ropes, and different containers and is not readily biodegradable.

6/ Polystyrene (PS)

Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic polymer made from monomer styrene.
It is a lightweight, rigid material resistant to water and many chemicals. It is also a good insulator and has a low moisture absorption rate. PS is used in various products, including disposable cups, food containers, and packaging materials. It also manufactures toys, CD and DVD cases, and multiple containers. PS is not readily biodegradable.

7/ Others

According to the Society of the Plastics Industry’s (SPI) resin identification coding system, the seventh group of plastics includes all other plastics that do not fit into the first six groups. These plastics may have unique chemical structures or properties that make them difficult to classify. Some examples of plastics that may be included in the seventh group are:

• Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)
• Polycarbonate (PC)
• Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
• Polyphenylene oxide (PPO)
• Polyphenylene oxide-block-polyethylene (PPO-PE)
• Polyphenylene oxide-block-polypropylene (PPO-PP)

|| Bioplastic Scam

We all can agree that from an environmental standpoint, plastics suck. So bioplastics should solve the problem, right?

Presenting to you scam #2

Bioplastics.

Fun fact: 45% of bioplastics produced today are not biodegradable !!

Bioplastics refer to bio-based plastics where naturally occurring raw materials like corn and starch are used instead of petroleum as a base product.

Now that these ‘bioplastics’ are made from corn, which is degradable, we have solved the plastic problem, right?

If only it were that simple :(

Even though bioplastics are based on bio-raw materials, they still form the same chemical structure as conventional plastics. They have the same properties except:

1. They’re made from bio-based materials instead of petroleum, hence the name bioplastics. Biodegradability comes from the chemistry of the bond formed and not what the material is made of.
2. To meet today's industrial and consumer plastic requirements, 50% of the world’s corn production will be required.
3. To degrade, they need specific industrial composting facilities with particular pressure and heat, for example, three months in an industrial composting facility. These facilities are expensive since massive infrastructure needs to be built from the ground up.

|| Degradability vs Biodegradability vs Compostability

1/ Degradability:

Plastics, including traditional petroleum-based plastics, can degrade in specific environmental conditions over time into smaller fragments. But, they won’t revert to a natural organic state, causing pollution by releasing chemicals and micropieces into the environment.

2/ Biodegradability:

Microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and algae in the water, CO2, methane, biomass, and inorganic compounds can decompose biodegradable bioplastics. They are considered biodegradable if completely broken down within a few months.

3/ Compostability:

Such plastics are similar to biodegradable plastics and can be decomposed by microorganisms into nutrient-rich biomass in a short period, typically three months, without leaving any harmful residue. Some can be composted in a home garden, while others require a specialized composting facility with high temperatures.

https://revistapesquisa.fapesp.br/en/the-promise-of-bioplastics

|| Plastic vs Bioplastic vs Biodegradable Plastic

1/ Plastic

Ethylene is a hydrocarbon that is commonly sourced from petroleum. It is typically produced by the thermal cracking of hydrocarbons found in crude oil or natural gas liquids. Polyethylene (one of the most frequently used plastics) is a thermoplastic polymer made from the monomer ethylene (C2H4) produced through polymerization, linking many ethylene molecules to form a long-chain polymer.

The monomer units in polyethylene are held together by strong covalent bonds. These bonds give the polymer its strength and resistance to breaking. Additionally, the polymer chain is linear, and the chains are packed closely together, providing the polymer with high density and making it difficult to break.

2/ Bioplastic

Bio-based plastics are produced from renewable resources, like plants, rather than fossil fuels. One of the most common bio-based plastics is polyethylene, which can be produced from plant-based materials such as sugarcane and corn. To make these bio-based plastic or “bioplastics” plant-based sugars from sugarcane and corn are fermented by microorganisms, such as bacteria or yeast, to produce ethanol. The ethanol is then converted into ethylene through dehydration, which removes the water molecule (H2O) from the ethanol to leave behind ethylene. The ethylene can then be polymerized to form bio-based polyethylene.

This is how bio-based plastic becomes nonbiodegradable, bringing us back to square one — polyethylene as a durable plastic.

3/ Biodegradable Plastic

A truly biodegradable plastic is a material that can be broken down, decomposed, and returned to the environment by natural processes without harming the ecosystem. These plastics are typically made from raw materials such as corn starch, cellulose, and chitin and can be broken down by microorganisms like bacteria and fungi into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass.

An example of truly biodegradable plastic is polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA). Chemically, PHA is produced by microorganisms (like Ralstonia eutropha, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Azotobacter vinelandii, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Lactobacillus plantarum or Micrococcus luteus) through fermentation. The organisms consume the feedstock and produce PHA as a storage material. The PHA is then extracted from the microorganisms and processed into various forms such as pellets, films, or fibers.

There are several types of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) with different properties and applications; some of the most common are:

1. Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is the most well-known PHA. It is a thermoplastic polymer with a high melting point, making it suitable for packaging, automotive parts, and medical devices.
2. Poly(3-hydroxy valerate) (PHV) is similar to PHB but has a lower melting point and is more flexible, making it suitable for applications such as films, bags, and disposable cutlery.
3. Poly(3-hydroxy octanoate) (PHO) is similar to PHB but is more hydrophobic and has a higher melting point, making it suitable for food packaging, medical devices, and coatings.
4. Poly(3-hydroxy alkanoates-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) (PHBH) is a copolymer of PHB and PHV with properties in between the two, making it suitable for applications such as packaging, automotive parts, and medical devices.
5. Poly(4-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxy valerate) (PHBV) is a copolymer of PHB and PHV with properties between the two, making it suitable for applications such as packaging, automotive parts, and medical devices.

|| Plastics → EDCs and Microplastics

Microplastics

Tiny plastic particles less than 5 mm are classified as primary (manufactured for commercial use like glitter) or secondary (resulting from the breakdown of larger plastics). The main characteristic of such microplastics is that they result from a mechanical breakdown of plastic and remain as small, chemically inert pieces within our bodies and the environment. Inert doesn’t mean harmless, and microplastics have their own unique stream of issues.

In the chemical context, microplastics are broken-down polymers of the larger plastic chains, but they are still polymers.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)

On a chemical level, EDCs are not polymers. They’re chemically active molecules added to give plastics a specific functionality. They are referred to as additives in plastic products that leach into food and other products. For e.g., plasticizers are added to make plastic more flexible (plastic tubing in any liquid food plant) or hardeners make your bottles hold the shape they do. I.e., they’re intentionally added to improve products and leach into our food and everyday care products like lotion. But we don’t quite know what the n-th order effects of them are.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and flame retardants interfere with the body’s hormonal systems, causing our body to behave differently than it would normally — earlier puberty as a result of xenoestrogens being sensed as estrogens, phthalates interfering with testosterone release, etc.

Quick Vocab

Endocrine System: A network of glands and organs that produces, stores, and secretes hormones to regulate growth, metabolism, and mood. So pretty much the backbone of growth and reproduction.

Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system travel through the bloodstream to target organs, regulating various bodily processes.

Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: External agents disrupt hormonal balance by mimicking natural hormones, blocking their effects, or altering the synthesis and breakdown of hormones and hormone receptors.

Leaching Process: EDCs are released into the environment from plastic products through degradation due to UV exposure, high temperatures, and physical wear and tear.

Part B

Since the 1950s, an estimated 9.2 billion metric tons of plastic waste have been generated, with 79% accumulating in landfills.

|| Problem’s status quo + root cause analysis:

How bad is it? What’s the “so-what”?

Since the large-scale introduction of plastic after the Second World War, 8.3 billion metric tons have been produced. Of this amount, until 2015, 6.3 billion tons have become waste. Only 9% of that waste plastic is recycled, and 12% is incinerated. The remaining 79% ends up in landfills or in the environment, where they will stay forever in one form or another, as plastic does not decompose. World production of plastic increased from two million tons in 1950 to 380 million tons in 2018 (this number includes plastic textile fibers)

Plastic does not decompose, so all plastic produced and disposed of in the environment is still present in one form or another. If the current trend continues, around the year 2050, there will be about twelve billion tons of plastic in landfills and the environment.

Plastic is being dumped in landfills and after bodies — leading to waste accumulation.

1. waste mismanagement
2. only 8% of plastics produced are recycled
3. it’s expensive and requires a lot of logistics (vehicles transporting the waste to sorting facilities and then to recycling plants)

• it’s a labor-intensive process because plastics need to be sorted into seven types, mostly manually
• because not all plastics can be recycled; the ones that can need to be sorted out. even the plastics that can be recycled are often downcycled, and eventually, they end up in landfills too

4. incineration isn’t efficient in the long run since we can’t release the toxins into the air after the process

5. there isn’t an end-of-life plan for plastics.

|| Opportunity cost & n-th order effects:

What’s the consequence of this problem not being solved?

Effects on Health — human and wildlife

a. Microplastics produced as a result of weathering

• Plastic is broken down into pieces less than 1cm big because of mechanical forces called microplastics. They can be so small that they’re no longer visible to the naked eye.
• The wind also carries microplastics. It ‘rains’ microplastics daily, even in the world’s most remote regions. Plastic microfibers have also been found at the deepest place on earth, where the ground is nearly eleven kilometers below the water’s surface.
• ingest them, and that the smallest particles — the nanoplastics — can spread throughout the body and possibly reach the organs, including the brain. We also know that the concentration of these small particles in the environment is increasing, and it’s likely that the concentration of particles in humans is doing the same.
• Plastic materials are carcinogenic and can affect the body’s endocrine system, causing developmental, neurological, reproductive, and immune disorders. Another health hazard is toxic contaminants that often accumulate on plastic’s surface, which are transferred to humans through seafood consumption.
• Most small plastic particles we inhale are also exhaled from the body. However, researchers found plastic particles in lung tissue. They are concerned that, when accidentally inhaling plastic, these tiny pieces will penetrate deep into the lungs and remain there because plastic does not decompose. They also fear that the microplastics will lead to inflammation above a certain concentration and with prolonged inhalation. Can our immune systems deal with plastic or are we more likely to suffer inflammation and infections?
• When tap water from cities on five continents was examined, it was found that more than 80% of the samples were contaminated with plastic microfibers. These microplastics in drinking water come from wear and tear on clothing, car tires, and synthetic carpets and can reach the tap water through contamination of local water sources. Microplastics have been found in underground water reservoirs in the United States, coming from domestic wastewater not connected to sewage systems. It has been known since 2014 that microplastics have been found in bottled mineral water and beer. 250 one-liter bottles of well-known brands from nine different countries were later examined; on average, ten particles were found per bottle. It is almost unavoidable; as we unscrew the plastic cap from a PET bottle, the friction releases plastic particles into the water.

b. Nurdle microplastics

• Nurdles are small beads that feed into plastic molding technology to produce plastic goods.
• As nurdles are extremely cheap, manufacturers are careless during production and transport. One kilo of plastic comprises about 50,000 granules and only costs EUR 0.95. Once in the sea, the nurdles cannot be cleared up anymore, and marine biologists often find them in the stomachs and intestines of sea birds, fish, and other sea creatures who mistake the plastic granules for food. Research by The Great Nurdle Hunt has shown that more than 220 species of marine animals eat plastic. They sometimes eat so much that they feel ‘full,’ stop eating real food, and starve to death. On top of this, they ingest the plastic’s chemical additives that are harmful to them and to any other animal — including ourselves — that eat these fish.
• Up to 23 billion plastic nurdles are in the environment daily in the EU alone. This amounts to an inconceivable 8 trillion nurdles of 160 million kilos in one year.
• Various toxic substances already in the water, such as DDT and PCBs, easily attach to nurdles.

c. Ghost Nets

• Marine mammals entangled in discarded fishing nets, such as dolphins, choke. Fish that get caught starve to death.
• In northern Australia, three tons of ghost nets wash up for every kilometer of coastline. Six of the seven existing species of sea turtles live in this area. Turtles look for floating objects to hide under, and from these safe places, they look for food and become entangled in the nets.
• Ghost nets also destroy corals because they become hooked on them.

d. Chemical effects

• Bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates are used to make plastics.
• Both these groups of chemical substances strongly disrupt our hormone balance. These endocrine-disrupting chemicals are associated with around eighty diseases, including testicular cancer, obesity, and reproductive disorders. Almost all people have traces of BPA in their bodies.
• Bisphenol A also causes fertility problems, among other ailments.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) has warned of possible carcinogenic properties of endocrine disruptors and concluded that these substances are a global threat to public health.

e. Host microbial life

• The plastisphere is the layer of microbial life that forms around every piece of floating plastic. These are bacterial colonies that consist of more than a thousand different organisms.
• German research from 2016 showed that various bacterial species of the genus Vibrio can attach themselves to floating microplastics. Vibrio bacteria are pathogens that can cause infections in humans and animals. Vibrio cholerae causes cholera in humans.
• Plastic waste and microplastics remain in the environment for a long time acting as vectors (a means of transport) for pathogens. In this way, plastic can spread microorganisms, including pathogens, in the sea and air.

f. Animal Life

• More than 2000 species are known to die from plastic or be affected by it. When this happens, animals can no longer move freely; they choke, starve, or lose limbs due to amputation.
• The common periwinkle, a sea snail, is on the menu of the crab. Normally the periwinkles defend themselves by withdrawing into their shell as soon as they detect the presence of a crab. this defense mechanism is impaired or no longer works because of toxic substances from microplastics due to the pollution of its ecosystem. The chemical substances that bind with plastic in seawater or leak out of the plastic paralyze the defense mechanism of the periwinkle.
• Mussels attach themselves to the ground, rock, or rope using thin threads. These byssal threads are exceptionally strong and elastic and can withstand currents and waves. The mussels are also attached to each other with these threads, creating mussel beds. Mussel beds are of great ecological importance. Blue mussels exposed to polyethylene microplastics for almost two months lost their grip. The strength of their byssal threads decreased by half. These exposed mussels also produced significantly fewer threads. When, as a result, the mussels are washed away, it has a negative effect on the biodiversity of the beds and causes a threat to the marine ecosystem.
• Arrowworms are transparent torpedo-shaped creatures that live in the sea and hunt for zooplankton. As has been recorded on film, arrow worms consume plastic microfibers. The digestive tract of this animal is as long as its body. The curled fiber blocks the tube, so the intake of real food is blocked. This recording shows how plastic enters the food chain because arrow worms are, in turn, eaten by animals higher up the chain. Amphipods that live at the deepest point of the ocean, the eleven-kilometer-deep Mariana Trench, were examined for the presence of plastic. These animals had plastic in their bodies, almost always microfibers from synthetic clothing.
• the fish that did eat them showed abnormal behavior: slower eating and hyperactive behavior. It was a laboratory study, but the accumulation of plastic in living organs can also occur in nature, especially if the animals live for a long time.
• Animals that accidentally eat plastic suffer and often die as a result of it. Swallowed plastic fills the stomach, and not surprisingly, this reduces the feeling of hunger. Animals eat less, obtain less energy, and weaken. Larger pieces of plastic can also block their gastrointestinal tract so that the plastic can no longer be excreted. In other cases, plastic is ground into small pieces in the stomach and scattered everywhere. This way, the northern fulmar grinds and spreads millions of pieces yearly. Some of it is left at abandoned nesting sites.
• In the United Arab Emirates, plastic causes half of all camel deaths

g. Carbon emissions

• Plastic pollution and climate change are two sides of the same coin: plastic production, created from fossil fuels, highly contributes to the climate crisis. As mentioned, when plastic waste is incinerated, it releases carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere, increasing emissions and worsening global warming.

h. Economic effects

• According to research, the yearly economic costs of plastic in the ocean are estimated to be between $6–19 billion USD. These costs are given by their impact on tourism, fisheries and aquaculture, and (governmental) cleanups.

|| History: What progress has been made in the past?

The biggest, most net-positive needle movers in reducing plastic waste to date were proper recycling by NGOs and small organizations, agreements from governments with the UN, and an increased flow of plastic waste trade to importers with cost-advantage prices.

As the first statistic demonstrates, these needle movers all have and continue to have drawbacks: Most plastic is still not recycled or processed properly.

It is unfortunate that a study conducted in seven countries found that most recycling was completed by NGOs and other small organizations. This demonstrates the lack of market incentive to recycle plastics without these initiatives. Plastic is so cheap to produce that external resources were the largest sources of change in low-income communities and countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.

Secondly, governmental policies and bans on plastic products have made some slow but effective progress. An example was China’s ban on plastic imports, which, after only four months of implementation, had already fallen from around 100,000 tonnes in June 2017 to less than 10,000 tonnes in January 2018 (Figure 8).

Finally, UN signatories have made a seemingly large dent in the problem of plastic waste. Over the past five years, their business signatories — representing 20% of the world’s plastic packaging industry — have significantly outperformed their peers regarding taking positive action to tackle plastic waste. This has been completed by their backing of the Global Commitment, an initiative to stop plastic packaging from becoming waste.

By increasing their use of recycled plastics by 1.5 million tonnes annually, signatories leave the equivalent of a barrel of oil in the ground every two seconds and avoid 2.5 million tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions.

The biggest inhibitors and mistakes with our existing and past plastic processing are

1. a lack of cost-competitive processing methods for the production of plastic
2. and improper segregation of plastic waste.

|| Gap Analysis: Why isn’t it solved already?

• Plastics are often enhanced with additives, and many products may contain more than one plastic type (e.g., the lids and bottles of plastic bottles may be made from different plastics). if they aren’t separated, this increases the complexity and difficulty of the biodegradation process. As for the process, many recent advancements in the fields of chemical recycling and mechanical recycling have given plastic biodegradation an energy of optimism, but these methods require much more streamlining and refinement to be used at scale. Many current waste management processes like incineration are also long-term financed, so many large-scale investments in waste incineration get locked down for many years, prohibiting the growth of the recycling market.
• There also exists a lack of standardized methods to assess, compare, and analyze the abilities of microorganisms and enzymes in biodegradable plastic, preventing advancement in that field. Biodegradation quantification has been done through many different techniques, preventing a universal basis of comparison across all studies.
• The actual chemical processes of biodegradation studies also vary significantly, most prevalent in the preparation of plastic into different forms before experiments, length of biodegradation, and pre-treatments, creating further complications.
• As these last three points proved, the biggest bottleneck to progress in plastic waste is a lack of global unification and consensus. Plastic pollution is one of the most complex and highly variable problems, as there is no end to the different varieties, forms, and compositions of plastic. There aren’t standard regulations or policies within countries, leading to too much complexity and difference in managing and reducing plastic waste.

|| Incentives: Who wins vs. who loses?

• Major corporations receive substantial funding to manufacture inexpensive plastic products. Taxpayers bear over 90% of the recycling costs, while significant subsidies continue to support the production of fossil fuels, which serve as a crucial raw material for plastic. To address this issue, plastic manufacturers must adopt end-of-life plans. For example, compostable plastics should only be distributed in regions with the necessary facilities. Large corporations like Nestle and Pepsi are responsible for significant plastic waste generation but lack efficient cleanup strategies. Without solid incentives, it’s unlikely that anyone else will step in to address the extensive pollution caused by these companies.
• The ripple effects of plastic pollution are severe, starting with adverse impacts on marine life and eventually affecting human health by limiting seafood consumption. Microplastics, formed through the mechanical breakdown of more oversized plastic items, pose a nearly insurmountable challenge for environmental removal.
• The implications for human health should compel us all to prioritize plastic cleanup efforts before it’s too late. Climate-tech firms, non-governmental organizations, and government initiatives are the primary stakeholders combating this crisis. Nonetheless, major plastic producers prioritize cost-effective traditional plastics over alternative materials.
• Current research is being done to chemically modify plastics and olefins, enabling their upcycling for various applications. This shift in chemical properties presents a financial incentive for recycling facilities to collect and process plastic rather than allowing it to end up in our oceans or landfills.
• Financial incentive: Generally, upcycling creates a bigger incentive for plastic to be collected and processed in facilities instead of being thrown into the sea or landfills