Ancient Mesopotamia Civilization
Introduction:
Mesopotamia is a region of southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river system that benefitted from the area’s climate and geography to host the beginnings of human civilization. Its history is marked by many important inventions that changed the world, including the concept of time, math, the wheel, sailboats, maps and writing. Mesopotamia is also defined by a changing succession of ruling bodies from different areas and cities that seized control over a period of thousands of years.
Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as the Middle East, which includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Fertile Crescent, an area also known as “Cradle of Civilization” for the number of innovations that arose from the early societies in this region, which are among some of the earliest known human civilizations on earth.
Map of Mesopotamia
The word “mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river. Situated in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria. (History.com, 2019)
Ancient Mesopotamia Civilization
Mesopotamia — mainly modern-day Iraq and Kuwait — in particular is often referred to as the cradle of civilization because some of the most influential early city-states and empires first emerged there — although it’s not the only place! Its modern name comes from the Greek for middle — mesos — and river — potamos — and literally means a “country between two rivers.” Those two rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates. Not only was Mesopotamia one of the first places to develop agriculture, it was also at the crossroads of the Egyptian and the Indus Valley civilizations. This made it a melting pot of languages and cultures that stimulated a lasting impact on writing, technology, language, trade, religion, and law.
Associated with Mesopotamia are ancient cultures like the Sumerians, Assyrians, Akkadians, and Babylonians. Learning about this time period can be a little confusing because these cultures interacted with and ruled over each other over the course of several thousand years. These terms can also be associated with city-states, languages, religions, or empires — depending on the time and context we are looking at. (Khan Academy)
Mesopotamian Gods:
Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with followers worshipping several main gods and thousands of minor gods. The three main gods were Ea (Sumerian: Enki), the god of wisdom and magic, Anu (Sumerian: An), the sky god, and Enlil (Ellil), the god of earth, storms and agriculture and the controller of fates. Ea is the creator and protector of humanity in both the Epic of Gilgamesh and the story of the Great Flood. (History.com, 2019)
Mesopotamian Art:
While making art predates civilization in Mesopotamia, the innovations there include creating art on a larger scale, often in the context of their grandiose and complex architecture, and frequently employing metalwork.
One of the earliest examples of metalwork in art comes from southern Mesopotamia, a silver statuette of a kneeling bull from 3000 B.C. Before this, painted ceramics and limestone were the most common art forms.
Another metal-based work, a goat standing on its hind legs and leaning on the branches of a tree, featuring gold and copper along with other materials, was found in the Great Death Pit at Ur and dates to 2500 B.C.
Mesopotamian art often depicted its rulers and the glories of their lives. Also created around 2500 B.C. in Ur is the intricate Standard of Ur, a shell and limestone structure that features an early example of complex pictorial narrative, depicting a history of war and peace.
In 2230 B.C., Akkadian King Naram-Sin was the subject of an elaborate work in limestone that depicts a military victory in the Zagros Mountains and presents Naram-Sin as divine.
Among the most dynamic forms of Mesopotamian art are the reliefs of the Assyrian kings in their palaces, notably from Ashurbanipal’s reign around 635 B.C. One famous relief in his palace in Nimrud shows him leading an army into battle, accompanied by the winged god Assur.
Ashurbanipal is also featured in multiple reliefs that portray his frequent lion-hunting activity. An impressive lion image also figures into the Ishtar Gate in 585 B.C., during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and fashioned from glazed bricks.
Mesopotamian art returned to the public eye in the 21st century when museums in Iraq were looted during conflicts there. Many pieces went missing, including a 4,300-year-old bronze mask of an Akkadian king, jewelry from Ur, a solid gold Sumerian harp, 80,000 cuneiform tablets and numerous other irreplaceable items. (History.com, 2019)
Sumerians civilization
Sumer was first settled by humans from 4500 to 4000 B.C., though it is probable that some settlers arrived much earlier.
This early population — known as the Ubaid people — was notable for strides in the development of civilization such as farming and raising cattle, weaving textiles, working with carpentry and pottery and even enjoying beer. Villages and towns were built around Ubaid farming communities.
The people known as Sumerians were in control of the area by 3000 B.C. Their culture was comprised of a group of city-states, including Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Kish, Ur and the very first true city, Uruk. At its peak around 2800 BC, the city had a population between 40,000 and 80,000 people living between its six miles of defensive walls, making it a contender for the largest city in the world.
Each city-state of Sumer was surrounded by a wall, with villages settled just outside and distinguished by the worship of local deities. (history)
The Sumerians were one of the earliest civilizations. Their growth and expansion were dependent on rich river valley farmlands. They were not as fortunate as others in terms of mineral resources or strategic position, however, and did not enjoy the long reign of the Egyptians. The Sumerians are considered one of the most important early cultures, nevertheless, because of the many advances attributed to them. Because their location was weak in terms of defense and poor in terms of resources, they were forced to innovate. In many ways, they were more important to history because of their innovations than the much richer Egyptians. (Age Of Empires)
Features of Sumerian Civilization
ECONOMY
The Sumerians grew wheat, barley, peas, onions, turnips, and dates. They raised cattle and sheep, fished, and hunted wildfowl along the river. Food was generally abundant, and populations grew accordingly. There was no copper in the river valleys, but copper was found in the mountains to the east and north. The Sumerians learned how to obtain copper from ore by 4000 BCE and to make bronze by 3500 BCE. They traded food, cloth, and manufactured items for raw materials, such as timber, copper, and stone. Their merchants traveled up the Tigris and Euphrates to trade with the people of Anatolia and the Mediterranean coast. They also traded in the Persian Gulf for items from India and further east.
RELIGION AND CULTURE
The Sumerians worshipped hundreds of gods, with each city having its own patron deity. The principal gods were too busy to bother with the plight of individuals. For that reason, each Sumerian worshipped a minor god or goddess who was expected to interact with the major gods. The Sumerians did not believe in a heavenly afterlife and were realistic about the limits of human goodness. They accepted that although the gods were above question, they were not always kind. The soul and center of each city-state was its temple to the patron god. The Sumerians believed that the god owned the city-state, and the Sumerians or their slaves farmed part of the land directly for the god. The remaining land was farmed by the temple staff or by farmers who paid rent to the temple. Rents and offerings paid for temple operation and supported the poor. Slaves were an important part of the community and were one objective of any military campaign. Even locals could become slaves to satisfy debts. Slaves could work extra hours and use any savings to buy their freedom.
GOVERNMENT
Each city in Sumer was ruled at first by a council of elders, although a war leader, called a lugal (literally “Big Man”) was selected to lead the army during conflict. Eventually the lugals assumed power as kings and established dynasties. Evidence suggests that the Sumerians may have taken the first steps toward democracy by electing a representative assembly. This consisted of two houses — a senate of important citizens and a lower house made up of those available for military duty. Preserved clay tablets reveal that the Sumerians maintained courts of justice where people could expect a fair trial. One tablet recorded the oldest murder trial in known history. Most of the food production and distribution was controlled through the temple. A noble class arose based on land ownership, control of trade, and manufacturing. Most trade and manufacturing were outside the temple’s control. (Age Of Empires)
Sumerian Art and Architecture
Architecture on a grand scale is generally credited to have begun under the Sumerians, with religious structures dating back to 3400 B.C., although it appears that the basics of the structures began in the Ubaid period as far back as 5200 B.C. and were improved upon through the centuries. Homes were made from mud bricks or bundled marsh reeds. The buildings are noted for their arched doorways and flat roofs.
Elaborate construction, such as terra cotta ornamentation with bronze accents, complicated mosaics, imposing brick columns and sophisticated mural paintings all reveal the society’s technical sophistication.
Sculpture was used mainly to adorn temples and offer some of the earliest examples of human artists seeking to achieve some form of naturalism in their figures. Facing a scarcity of stone, Sumerians made leaps in metal-casting for their sculpture work, though relief carving in stone was a popular art form.
Under the Akkadian dynasty, sculpture reached new heights, as evidenced by intricate and stylized work in diorite dated to 2100 B.C.
Ziggurats began to appear around 2200 B.C. These impressive pyramid-like, stepped temples, which were either square or rectangular, featured no inner chambers and stood about 170 feet high. Ziggurats often featured sloping sides and terraces with gardens. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon was one of these. (History.com)
Babylon Civilization
Babylon was a minor city-state in central Mesopotamia for a century after it was founded in 1894 BCE. Things changed with the reign of Hammurabi, from 1792 to 1750 BCE. He was an efficient ruler, establishing a centralized bureaucracy with taxation. Hammurabi freed Babylon from foreign rule and then conquered the whole of southern Mesopotamia, bringing stability and the name of Babylonia to the region.(Khan Academy)
Mesopotamian civilization was one of the earliest in world history. During the reign of King Hammurabi (r. 1792 BC — 1750 BC), Babylon became a key kingdom of Mesopotamia. The Babylonians went on to greatly influence Mesopotamian culture. More importantly, they had a great impact on the history of western civilization. Among the most important contributions of Babylonia are the first ever positional number system; accomplishments in advanced mathematics; laying the foundation for all western astronomy; and impressive works in art, architecture and literature It may have been the first city in the history of the world to reach a population over 200,000 people. Here is a discussion of ancient Babylonian civilization. (Anirudh, 2018)
Features of Babylonian Civilization
Hammurabi’s Code
King Hammurabi established firm laws called Hammurabi’s Code. This was the first time in history that the law was written down. It was recorded on clay tablets and tall pillars of stones called steles.
Hammurabi’s code consisted of 282 laws. Many of them were quite specific, but were meant as guidelines to be used in similar circumstances. There were laws governing commerce such as wages, trade, rental rates, and the sale of slaves. There were laws governing criminal behavior describing the penalties for stealing or damaging property. There were even laws governing adoption, marriage, and divorce. (Ducksters)
Economy and Society
The society and economy of Babylonia was recognizably similar to that of a thousand or two years previously. The land was still tilled by peasants, many of whom worked as tenants or laborers on temple estates; agriculture, as in all pre-modern societies, was by far the predominant economic activity. Craftsmen were still (or more accurately, again) largely employed by the temple priesthoods, who again had control of a huge part of Babylonia’s economy. However, it is likely that, under the late Babylonian kings, the economy of ancient Mesopotamia reached hitherto unmatched heights. Much new land was opened up to cultivation and irrigation systems were expanded and upgraded.
The countryside was covered by large estates, owned by kings, nobles, officials and, above all, temples. These were partly let out to tenants, free and, more often, unfree; serfdom seems to have been more widespread at this time than previously, probably a result of the age of chaos of the 11th and 10th centuries BCE when farmers put themselves under the protection of priests and other powerful figures to escape marauding raiders. Partly the estates were farmed directly, with the aid of slaves and hired labour, under the management of land stewards. (The Late Babylonian Empire)
RELIGION AND CULTURE
The Babylonians worshipped many gods, but chief of these was Marduk, god of the city of Babylon. In the artwork that decorated the city, Marduk was depicted in the form of a dragon. Festivals were held throughout the year in honor of specific gods to assure their favor. The New Year festival for Marduk assured fertility in the fields. For a brief time, the New Empire was among the richest in the world. The city reflected that wealth in its extensive and highly decorated monuments. The interior of the Temple of Marduk was reportedly covered with gold. At the center of a far-flung and prosperous trading empire, the people of Babylon had access to exotic goods and manufactured items from throughout the world.
GOVERNMENT
The New Empire government of Babylon adopted many of the Assyrian imperial practices, which probably contributed to its own short life. The king had overall administrative power, in addition to his central role in important religious rituals. Governors ruled provinces on behalf of the king, but most of these were Babylonians appointed from outside the local area. Local puppets were often left in place to rule local kingdoms, but this occasionally led to revolt, as in the case of Jerusalem.
ARCHITECTURE
The city of Babylon was destroyed and rebuilt several times, usually on top of the old ruins. Buildings and walls were constructed of mud bricks, baked first in the sun and then with fire. The Babylon of the New Empire period was one of the wealthiest cities in the world. The Chaldean kings rebuilt the city and established its reputation for splendor. The Euphrates River passed through the middle of the city and was also directed around its four sides through a moat. Inside the moat were double walls. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus claimed that the outer wall was so wide that a chariot with four horses could drive along it. There were several city gates, each named after an important god.
The Ishtar Gate opened on the sacred Processional Way that led to the ziggurat and the Temple of Marduk. The gate, sacred way, and temples were decorated with bright blue glazed tiles depicting real and fantastical animals in relief. A bridge connected the two sides of the city. The east side contained the palace and temples, including many ziggurats. The greatest of these, built by Nebuchadnezzar II, had seven levels with a small temple devoted to Marduk at the top. This ziggurat was probably the Tower of Babel mentioned in the Bible. Nebuchadnezzar also built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a multistoried ziggurat decorated with trees and plants to resemble a mountain. According to legend, the gardens were built to remind one of his wives of her mountain homeland. The Hanging Gardens were one of the seven so-called Wonders of the Ancient World. (Age Of Empires)
Akkadian Civilization
The first Empire to rule all of Mesopotamia was the Akkadian Empire. It lasted for around 200 years from 2300 BC to 2100 BC. How it Began The Akkadians lived in northern Mesopotamia while the Sumerians lived in the south. They had a similar government and culture as the Sumerians, but spoke a different language. The government was made up of individual city-states. This was where each city had its own ruler that controlled the city and the surrounding area. Initially, these city-states were not united and often warred with each other. Over time, the Akkadian rulers began to see the advantage of uniting many of their cities under a single nation. They began to form alliances and work together.
Interesting Facts About the Akkadians
v Many people in Mesopotamia at the time spoke two languages, Akkadian and Sumerian.
v There were many good roads built between the major cities. They even developed an official postal service.
v The Sumerians believed that the Akkadian Empire collapsed because of a curse placed on them when Naram-Sin conquered the city of Nippur and destroyed the temple.
v The kings maintained power by installing their sons as governors over the major cities. They also made their daughters high priestesses over the major gods.
v Sargon installed the first dynasty. He came up with the idea that a man's sons should inherit his kingdom. (The Akkadian Empire)
Assyrian Civilization
Assyria, kingdom of northern Mesopotamia that became the centre of one of the great empires of the ancient Middle East. It was located in what is now northern Iraq and southeastern Turkey. A brief treatment of Assyria follows. For full treatment, see Mesopotamia, history of: The Rise of Assyria. Assyria was a dependency of Babylonia and later of the Mitanni kingdom during most of the 2nd millennium BCE. It emerged as an independent state in the 14th century BCE, and in the subsequent period it became a major power in Mesopotamia, Armenia, and sometimes in northern Syria. Assyrian power declined after the death of Tukulti-Ninurta I (c. 1208 BCE). It was restored briefly in the 11th century BCE by Tiglath-pileser I, but during the following period both Assyria and its rivals were preoccupied with the incursions of the seminomadic Aramaeans. The Assyrian kings began a new period of expansion in the 9th century BCE, and from the mid-8th to the late 7th century BCE, a series of strong Assyrian kings — among them Tiglath-pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon — united most of the Middle East, from Egypt to the Persian Gulf, under Assyrian rule. The last great Assyrian ruler was Ashurbanipal, but his last years and the period following his death, in 627 BCE, are obscure. The state was finally destroyed by a Chaldean-Median coalition in 612–609 BCE. Famous for their cruelty and fighting prowess, the Assyrians were also monumental builders, as shown by archaeological sites at Nineveh, Ashur, and Nimrūd. (Britannica)
Interesting Facts About the Assyrians
v The great cities of the Assyrian Empire included Ashur, Nimrud, and Nineveh. Ashur was the capital of the original empire and also their main god.
v Tiglath-Pileser III built roads throughout the empire to enable his armies and messengers to travel quickly.
v The Assyrians were experts at siege warfare. They used battering rams, siege towers, and other tactics such as diverting water supplies in order to take a city.
v Their cities were strong and impressive. They had huge walls built to withstand a siege, many canals and aqueducts for water, and extravagant palaces for their kings. (Ducksters)
Types of Festivals & Holidays Mesopotamia Civilization
There were all sorts of different festivals and holidays in ancient Mesopotamia. Some were similar to our Thanksgiving. Others were a bit more esoteric by modern standards, like a festival devoted to sheep-shearing.
Some holidays had a religious but also practical side to them, such as when offerings of fruit and dairy from around Mesopotamia were made. This also allowed farmers from across Mesopotamia to exchange their goods at the same time.
Many festivals in ancient Mesopotamia revolved around a mythological drama of some sort, which could be reenacted by its believers in some cases.
As importantly, some of the most common types of festivals and holidays involved various days connected to the cycle of the phases of the moon. During the lunar month, Mesopotamians were given 6 holidays, where they took part in games and entertainment. They were also given 3 days for pure relaxation. And they were given 3 days for lunar festivals.
But the biggest festival was celebrated each New Year. Nope, on December 31st-January 1st. This ancient Mesopotamian New Year’s Festival occurred during the first eleven days of Nisan. Nisan was the month associated with the spring equinox. (Mesopotamia: Holidays & Festivals)
Family life of Mesopotamia Civilization
Mesopotamia, as shown by successive law codes, those of Urukagina, Lipit Ishtar and Hammurabi, across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, one in which the men were far more powerful than the women. For example, during the earliest Sumerian period, the “en”, or high priest of male gods was originally a woman, that of female goddesses, a man. Thorkild Jacobsen, as well as many others, has suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a “council of elders” in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased. As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father’s trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade.[47] Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain or cleaning birds. Unusually for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce. (Wikipedia)
Causes of Decline of Mesopotamia Empire
Mesopotamia was known as the land between the two rivers , the tigris to the north and Euphrates to the south. Mesopotamia existed 3000 years before it ended . Historians attribute many reason for the fall of mesopotamians .
The two main causes of the decline of this civilisation is
1. War
2. Faulty irrigation system
Mesopotamia’s life style was destroyed by war . The different city states were fighting for the control of each others land and would wage all out conflicts among each other to gain territory . They mostly fought for farm lands and would wage all out conflicts among each other to gain territory .
Another important observation is that irrigation techniques are also one of the chief reason for decline of empire . The river were higher than the surrounding plains because of built up silt in the river beds , so the water for irrigation flowed into the fields by gravity. Once water was into the fields it could not drain away easily because the fields were lower than the rivers .
As the water evaporated , it not only lefts its dissolved mineral salts behind , but also drew salts upwards from the lower levels of soil . By 2300 B.C. agricultural economy of the mesopotamians began to shatter as the soil could no longer support plantation .
The same technique which made the farming possible at some point of time , prevent it during later period of time. (Wani)
Conclusion:
Mesopotemian civilization is world’s recorded oldest civilization. It is situated in the middle area of Tigris and Euphretes rivers. They invented a lot of mesmerizing things that helps our world to be civilized and advanced. Some of their achievements are they are the first in history of the world who made civilization that is the mark of the advancement of human knowledge. They built the first city in the world. They had the longest empires till that point. The influential ‘Cuniform’ script was invented in Mesopotemia. They enacted the earliest known comprehensive legal code. They developed first ever positional number system. They could perform advanced Arithmetics. They developed the basis form of western astronomy. They are credited with the invention of wheel and chariot and most importantly the impressive work of Art and Architecture. This great civilization had destroyed by the wave of the time. Now we just can only get the signs of them.
