Aristotle’s Eudaimonia: Searching for the Soul in the Workplace

Pleasure in the job puts perfection in the work. ~ Aristotle

Image from stock.adobe.com. The image was altered by the author with Canva.

Career well-being is a concept used to measure an individual’s lived career experiences. It expresses their feelings (negative or positive) about their career paths.

An organization’s survival and prosperity, require that its most valuable resource (human capital), is sufficiently functioning. That is, ensuring they are emotionally, psychologically, physically, socially, and spiritually well.

Considering that individuals spend at least one-third of their waking life at work, adhering to their well-being is imperative. This is to ensure their finest quality of work.

Well-being can be categorized into two models:

• The disease model
• The positive psychology model

The disease model is the accumulation of much research and exploration by psychologists. They have sought to explain the psychopathological basis of anguish. The outcome of this model has revealed accurate measures of classification, identification, and treatment of psychopathology.

However, mental well-being and its development have not received the same much-needed dedication within psychological studies.

Because of the vast amount of time and resources dedicated to the understanding of psychopathology, research centered on well-being and enhanced quality of life was compromised.

Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi introduced the positive psychology paradigm in 2000. (Coetzee and Schreuder, 2013; Culbertson, et al., 2010; Sachs, 2021)

The positive psychology model investigates how work and career development benefits contribute to employees' functionality and profit-driven growth potential. Aspects like happiness, thriving, fulfillment, and self-realization are the main concerns of positive psychology.

Crespo and Mesurado (2014) also stress the socializing desire of human nature regarding positive psychology. Their research collaborates with Sachs (2021) who seeks to amend the ‘social dilemma’ within the current economic framework.

Sachs (2021) states (quite beautifully):

Interactions that are characterized by a ‘social dilemma’, where an individual may gain personal wealth, fame, or glory by deliberately hurting others, the interpersonal virtue of justice requires choosing sociality (trust, value, adherence to norms) rather than short-term personal advantage.

Seligman’s research has revealed a positive correlation between mental well-being and life satisfaction. Positive psychology is the “science of subjective experience, positive intuitions, and individual traits which improve well-being and prevent the onset of psychopathology or shortly the science of happiness.” (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2013; Lee et al., 2005)

Psychological Capital

An educated mind is able to entertain a thought critically, without accepting it. ~Aristotle

According to Culbertson et al. (2010) psychological capital, PsyCap, is based on four resources within the individual self:

1. Self-Efficacy
2. Optimism
3. Resilience
4. Hope

Within this reservoir of human ability, individuals can access the power to enhance their well-being. (Herbert, 2011) Also, according to Sweetman et al. (2010), these four PsyCap resources facilitate creativity within an organization.

Herbert's (2011) study revealed a correlation between the progression of the four PsyCap strengths in employees and a decrease in burnout and stress. Accordingly, the realization of one PsyCap in an employee leads to the natural development of the other four.

Culbertson et al. (2010) refer to Seligman’s work regarding the second PsyCap dimension, optimism, as “the individual’s positive attributional style about success.” Additionally, Herbert (2011) affirms that the first two PsyCap qualities, self-efficacy, and optimism, are related to increased amounts of employee engagement.

Yu, et al. (2019) have discovered that each PsyCap works independently of the next while influencing the entire creative, functioning process. Flourishing results when PsyCap is promoted in the workplace. (Yu et al., 2019, p. 421)

Flourishing is a philosophical notion that arrives to us from 384 to 322 B.C.E. It’s a feature of Aristotle’s Eudaimonia.

PsyCap is a valuable concept worthy of further investigation. Especially to guide management and leaders to harness effectiveness, promote quality, and get consistent results. However, this medium article is focused on well-being and eudaimonia.

There are Three Approaches to Well-Being:

• Psychological Well-Being
• Subjective Well-Being
• Eudaimonia

Psychological Well Being

To attain any assured knowledge about the soul is one of the most difficult things in the world. ~Aristotle

Psychological well-being describes the various aspects of mental health. Psychological well-being is centered on the processes, structures, and frameworks of living well.

Psychological well-being comprises six aspects.

These are autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive social relations, purpose in life, and self-acceptance.

1. Autonomy — This includes features like self-determination, independence, and maintaining individual values and convictions despite social/grouping pressure. To be aware of one’s emotional self and regulate behavior. Also, to control one’s emotions. Typically, this is dependent on personal values and belief systems.
2. Environmental Mastery — This refers to the ability to mold and decide on the correct type of environment suitable for the emotional and psychological state of mind.
3. Personal Growth — This is the nourishing and continued realization of one’s potential, their self-worth. To expand one’s perception through lived experience. It’s the self-actualization process that involves witnessing continued improvement.
4. Positive Social Relations — This is the capacity to create and maintain warm, satisfying, and trusting relationships. To be willing and open to new experiences. Also, it's having the welfare of others at the forefront of behavior and thought. It’s the ability to be intimate, empathetic, and understanding in human relationships.
5. Purpose in Life — This is having higher-order desires above basic needs and goals. This is about directing one’s life to have a positive direction. To ensure a worthwhile outcome for efforts placed. To uphold that there is meaning beyond the obvious in life.
6. Self-Acceptance — This is about maintaining a positive attitude about one’s self. It’s recognizing all of the various layers to one’s personality whether they be positive or negative, and feeling positive about one’s past.

Generally, psychological well-being is considered to embody all of the main features of the positive psychology paradigm. Psychological well-being is the overarching, all-inclusive term. Subjective well-being and eudaimonia are subdivisions of psychological well-being.

Subjective Well-Being

The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet. ~Aristotle

Subjective well-being is based on the premise that people have unique responses to the same circumstance, and they analyze the situation based on their individual expectations, values, and previous experiences.

The summation of an individual’s life satisfaction is determined on:

Their accumulated judgments

The frequency of positive and negative moods and emotions

The quality of life concerning work, family, society, health, leisure, and finances.

Subjective well-being consists of satisfying one’s requirements in a bottom-up pyramid hierarchy from basic to high-order needs.

Inherent subjective well-being involves notions of the personality, which can be divided into genetic predisposition and traits.

From a positive perspective, authors Bauer and McAdams (2010) and Lee et al. (2005) hypothesized that subjective well-being could be optimized for the establishment and realization of career goals.

Bauer et al. (2010) and Osin et al. (2021) conceive subjective well-being as a fundamental feature of psychosocial maturity.

Psychosocial maturity as an aspect of subjective well-being considers not only emotions and moods but also how as individuals we incorporate the complexity and depth of experience within the broadening conceptual framework of our lives. (Osin et al., 2021)

Subjective well-being and psychosocial maturity function as relatively distinct facets of personality. (Bauer et al., 2010) Subjective well-being focuses on specific outcomes. Eudaimonic principles guide the journey.

Eudaimonic Well-Being

Quality is not an act, it is a habit. ~Aristotle

According to Disabato et al. (2015), the notion of eudaimonia was an extension of Aristotle’s 4th century B.C.E. concept of “human flourishing and living up to one’s full potential.”

Disabato et al. (2015) assert that eudaimonia moves past pleasure-focused happiness to embody true growth and self-acceptance. Coetzee and Schreuder (2013) refer to the notion of one’s true self as one’s daimon (or true self). They further this explanation by stating that to “live in truth to one’s daimon is an expression of personal integrity.” This is reaffirmed by Waterman (1990), individuals have a duty to acknowledge their daimon and live in fulfillment of it.

One way to achieve this is to recognize the weaknesses, limitations, and strengths of one’s self. Through this recognition, one must steer the course of their lives while upholding higher-order values.

There are approximately six dimensions to eudemonic well-being.

These are self-discovery, perceived development of one’s best potential, sense of purpose and meaning in life, investment in the pursuit of excellence, involvement in activities, and enjoyment of activities as personally expressive.

1. Self-Discovery- This process is one of the main focuses of eudaimonic well-being. It is also an aspect of well-being, success, and identity formation.
2. Perceived Development of One’s Best Potentials—According to Coetzee and Schreuder (2013) one of the most essential elements of personal growth and well-being is the ability to recognize where one’s unique potential lies. This gives an idea of what a person can achieve and become. Recognizing is not enough, one must endeavor through action and persistence to attain that true self.
3. Sense of Purpose and Meaning in Life— To achieve the objectives of eudaimonic well-being, one must act on those talents, skills, and capacities to achieve meaningful outcomes.
4. Investment in Pursuit of Excellence— Commitment to this will require a great deal of personal commitment and energy, and therefore the results will be worth it and meaningful. (Sachs, 2021)
5. Involvement in Activities— Due to the relevance of this for an individual, the involvement will yield higher rewards than mundane pursuits.
6. Enjoyment of Activities as Personally Expressive— This is an expression of a person's uniqueness. It's a journey of discovery and individualization. (Crespo & Mesurado, 2014)

A Further Look at Eudaimonic Principles

The energy of the mind is the essence of life. ~Aristotle

Crespo and Mesurado (2014) express their support for the ongoing focus on people’s well-being and happiness in economic theory. A substantial amount of their research is drawn from Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach. They look at Happiness Economics in relation to Aristotle's Eudaimonia and Sen’s Development theories.

Sachs (2021), Crespo, and Mesurado (2014) explain the Eudaimonic concept as a notion that’s distinct from a singular pleasure-seeking principle. They examine the principle of means and end. Hedonism is often mistaken for the pursuit of happiness in the globalized market.

Waterman (1990) refers to the philosopher Aristippus, who lived in Cyrene in the third century B.C.E. Aristippus laid the foundation for ethical hedonism. Pleasure is the “sole good” or end. The notion of a life dedicated to gratification as an end is what Aristotle referred to as a “slavish” (Sachs, 2021, p.31) existence, akin to “a life of grazing animals” (Waterman, 1990, p.39).

Eudaimonia is an act (Sachs, 2021; Waterman, 1990) or a process (Crespo & Mesurado, 2014) of expressing virtue. Sachs (2021) refers to the word arete which translates to virtue or excellence. Striving and fulfilling one's unique potential.

To achieve arete, one must possess the “faculty of reason.” (Sachs, 2021, p. 29) Reason is akin to a balanced approach that challenges the paradox of people as political animals and yet, above the status of cattle endowed with language.

Value and worth transcend pleasure. Crespo and Mesurado (2014) explore further and conclude that eudaimonic value is a realm beyond the material, beyond the attainment of things.

Waterman (1990) notes the distinguishing feature of Eudaimonia from hedonic pursuits. Hedonism is realized through the simple satiation of primal desires. In comparison, eudaimonia is manifest in the acquisition of one’s inner potential.

Additionally, Osin et al. (2021) recognize that eudaimonia and hedonism are distinguishing aspects of positive functioning. Yet, vary in degrees of quality and satisfaction. Eudaimonia is aligned with “effortful growth,” “overcoming challenges,” “authenticity”, and increased “interest.” (Osin et al., 2021)

Therefore, the trajectory of fulfillment doesn’t align with policies of self-centered pursuits.

Dismantling Six Assumptions Surrounding the Economy

The secret of business is to know something that nobody else knows. ~Aristotle

Award-winning Jeffery Sachs published “The End of Poverty” and “The Price of Civilization” among many others which are widely received and lauded across the globe.

Sachs notes six economic assumptions that have filtered into contemporary thinking. They’ve set a faulty foundation and need a more thorough examination.

These six flawed assumptions are:

1. “Utility is egoistic.” (Sachs, 2021, p. 38) Unyielding self-centered consumption of products and services is the main drive behind economic growth. Self-preservation doesn’t require attention to the well-being of society.
2. Second-to-second momentum of acquisition and satisfaction is solely determined by the consumption of market goods and services.
3. A retrospective look at overall (lifetime) utility reveals the necessity of the diminished “moment-to-moment utility.” (Sachs, 2021)
4. The utility function is premised on the continued requirement of tastes and preferences. Preferences need only minimal quality assurance- transitivity of preferences.
5. Consumers are focused on utility maximization and budget limitations. They decide on their preferred product/service dependent on this equation.

Sachs (2021) describes how the three utility assumptions are in direct contrast with Aristotle's eudaimonia.

Accordingly:

These features of modern utility theory do not withstand empirical scrutiny. (Sachs, 2021, p. 39)

Sachs (2021) concludes that these assumptions are responsible for the widespread misery in our modern age. He investigates addiction. The results indicate that human beings are notably incapable of consciously regulating probabilities and anticipating fluctuations in the market.

Modernity is rife with attempts to mainline advertising into the brain’s pleasure centers and relentlessly appeal to unaware individuals. This bombardment is antagonistic to eudaimonic principles.

This is a fascinating study that I highly recommend to anyone who wants to learn more.

Dictionary of Aritotle’s Eudaimonia

People acquire a particular quality by constantly acting according to it. ~Aristotle

Akrasia

~ This is typically understood as incontinence or an absence of impulse control. An individual who exhibits akrasia knows the right course of action, yet, doesn’t possess the inner strength to choose it. Evil actions are the result of weakness (like Socratic teachings) and not outright willingness.

Anagnorisis

~ This translates to awareness or revelation. Anagnorisis is the moment when the protagonist of a tragedy journeys from ignorance to knowing. Generally, the revelation is based on a personal truth, that ultimately sets the hero free- the climax of the setting, story, or personal narrative.

Arete

~ This means virtue or excellence. Arete pertains to moral, intellectual, physical, and spiritual excellence. So, there are various applications of virtue to the field of eudaimonia. Through habit and exercise virtue is realized. Higher-order functioning is an end and not a means.

Boulesis

~ This means deliberation. That is, yearning rooted in deliberation. This is a rational desire, derived from good actions/behavior.

Energeia

~ This translates to energy and activity. Energeia doesn’t necessarily reveal itself in visible actions and can be achieved via meditation, happiness, and contemplation. While virtue is a human temperament, energeia isn’t. It's an outcome of happiness while functioning to one’s full potential.

Epithumia

~ Sensation, or pleasure-based desire—drinking, eating, and tactile pleasing stimulation.

Ethos

~ In Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics, ethos is character. Ethos doesn’t constitute morals, instead, it describes character strength.

Hamartia

~ This means error or tragic flaw. Hamartia is the moment when a hero is cast down. Typically, this downfall displays dramatic irony, in that, the hero is unaware that his actions brought about the tragic consequences. However, the audience is aware. Also, hamartia is a simple error, mistake, or an act of forgetting.

Katharsis

~ This means to purify or purge, usually of a negative emotional state. Katharsis is a freeing of pent-up emotional turmoil. After the floodgates have been opened and cleared, an individual regains stability and emotional neutrality.

Mimesis

~ This is a process of mental creation. Mimesis produces art and ideas, usually born from deep psychic impulses. Also understood as imitation, mimesis, is a poetic function of relaying real-life occurrences. It calls on the listener to participate through imagination.

Orexis

~ This is Aristotle’s general term for desire, concerning human functioning.

Phronesis

~ This is an Aristotelian term for prudence or practical wisdom. Above Sachs (2021, p.29) mentions the “faculty of reason,” practical wisdom (phronesis) is attained via experience and mentorship. This is distinct from theoretical wisdom, which requires study.

Psuche

~ Soul, anima, or breath, psyche is the essence of an individual. It's beyond the realm of human perception and can’t be measured or observed. There are three divisions of the psyche: nutritive, appetitive, and rational. (See Sachs, 2021)

Telos/Teleology

~ Purpose, goal, or end, telos is the aim desired by all humans to acquire. Telos arrives from our ability for rational thought.

Thumos

~ Otherwise referred to as spirited. Also, this is desire-driven by threat, danger, or retaliatory desire.

These Aristotelian terms I got with thanks to: https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/aristotle/key-

A Quick Mention of The Open University

All people by nature desire knowledge. ~Aristotle

I’m addicted to the Open University’s OpenLearn section. OpenLearn offers a wide range of free courses that live up to a university standard. While I was researching Aristotle’s principles I was enrolled in Getting Started on Ancient Greek.

This fun, engaging free course is simple to understand and complete. With primary source material, I delved into the world of Ancient Greece and felt it complemented my research well. There is a wide range of courses in numerous subjects that are quick, yet thorough. If you want to top up your pre-existing knowledge or learn something new, give OpenLearn a try.

References

The educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living differ from the dead.~Aristotle

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Bauer, J. J., & McAdams, D. P. (2010) Eudaimonic growth: Narrative growth goals predict increases in ego development and subjective well-being 3 years later. Developmental Psychology, 46(4), 761–772. doi: 10.1037/a0019654

Coetzee, M & Schreuder, D. (2010). Personnel Psychology: an applied perspective. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Crespo, R. F., & Mesurado, B. (2014). Happiness economics, eudaimonia and positive psychology: From happiness economics to flourishing economics. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(4), 931–946. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9541-4

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