Roman Emperors
What impact did Roman Emperors have on Jesus and the early church?
Introduction
The Roman Empire is important to study and understand because of its extensive influence over the culture and politics which set the context for the birth of Christianity. As it was the office of Roman Emperor which garnered the most power and influence within the ancient Roman Empire, this study will seek to examine Roman Emperors and their impact on Jesus and the early church.
Although often in opposition with both Jesus and the early church, God nonetheless worked out Roman political affairs and early church history for His own glory. In order to understand this, each relevant Roman Emperor will be examined for their (1) character and history, (2) influence over the Empire, and (3) impact on Jesus and the church.
Julius Caesar (Reigned 46–44 BC)
Prior to the Roman Empire, Rome existed as a Republic (509–31 BC), controlled by three governing branches [1]:
- The consuls — two officials that were elected in the Roman Republic to serve for one year in place of a king.
- The Senate — three hundred patricians who served for life, controlling finances, laws, and foreign affairs.
- The assemblies — various groups usually made of patricians who voted on new laws, made declarations of war, and elected the consuls.
Rome’s success in creating a vast empire across the Mediterranean eventually led to its failure. A series of ambitious individuals — Sulla, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony, and Octavian — commanded armies which were more loyal to them than to the state. This created several bloody civil wars. [2]
Marius was a military commander who fought against Sulla; Sulla rose victorious, declared himself dictator, reorganized the Roman government, then stepped down. In his place, three ambition men tried to gain control of the Senate: Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar. They formed an alliance called the triumvirate.
Soon after, Crassus died in war, leaving Pompey and Julius Caesar to rule. Pompey became jealous of Julius Caesar and eventually sided with the Senate against Caesar. Caesar marched on Rome and defeated Pompey’s army, declaring himself dictator over the Roman Empire. [3]
Julius Caesar’s reign was short-lived; at the height of his military and political success, Julius was assassinated in 44 BC by a group of Senators who still believed in the Republic. The Republic was not restored with Caesar’s death; instead, Rome was plunged into more civil war.
Julius’s nephew and adopted son, Octavius Caesar, took up his murdered uncles cause; Octavius defeated the men who conspired against Julius (Brutus and Cassius, as well as other rivals), assuming supreme power over the Roman world in 31 BC. [4] Octavius became the first emperor over the Roman Empire, in which Christianity was born into.
Although Julius Caesar did not directly interact with Christ or the church due to his earlier death, he is still notable, for it was under him that a revenant (soon to be religious) view of Roman emperors began to take shape. There was introduced a new sort of emperor worship “where the loyalty of the subject was intertwined with the veneration imposed upon all provincials.”[5]
In addition then to setting the political stage for a Roman Empire that would govern over all of the Mediterranean, Julius Caesar introduced a Roman reverence with which Christianity would eventually come into contest and conflict with.
Octavian Augustus (Reigned 31 BC — 14 AD)
Augustus’s 45-year rule is considered Rome’s golden age. Augustus’ legions guarded the frontiers and maintained Pax Augusta, the Augustinian peace. Peace brought about Roman prosperity. The populace adored Augustus, calling him “father of his country” and “second founder of Rome.” Augustus is known for his just governance. Augustus’ rule revitalized Rome, which permitted the continuation of its civilizing and unifying force for another half millennium. [6]
Although Augustus began as a ruthless power-seeker who would murder his opponents without any moral qualms, he matured into a wise, generous, moderate ruler. Augustus was such a successful ruler that the principle of government by single ruler became the standard for most of the rest of Rome’s history. [7]
Augustus had a more direct influence on Jesus, as it was he who was emperor at the time of Jesus’ birth. Luke mentions that it was Augustus who ordered the census which took Mary and Joseph on their journey to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born.[8] Luke writes, “There went out a decree from Caesar Augustus, that all the world should be taxed.”[9]
Being emperor over such a big empire meant that Augustus would need assistance governing various localities. Augustus was the one who confirmed Herod the Great as ruler over Palestine. It is Herod who ruled Palestine when Jesus was born; he was the one who confronted the magi and ordered the massacre of babies in Bethlehem. [10]
After Augustus’ death, a priesthood for his worship was established.[11] In addition to the traditional pagan religions, mystery cults, and philosophies, Rome made emperor worship standardized. The Senate raised some emperors, such as Augustus, to the ranks of the gods after they died. People would go so far as to pray to them throughout the East and West.[12]
Tiberius (Reigned 14–37 AD)
Tiberius had the most direct influence over Jesus’ earthly ministry because it was under his rule that Jesus conducted His ministry, was crucified, and resurrected. Tiberius was a successful general. He married Julia, the daughter of Augustus, so that he could become protector to Augustus’s grandsons and heirs. After their deaths, Augustus had no one whom he could elevate to successor except Tiberius. Thus, Tiberius became the next emperor. Although his rule was founded upon adherence to the policies of Augustus, his rule was marked by discontent among the Roman Senate.[13]
Pontius Pilate was appointed as procurator of Judea by Tiberius, who served this role from 26–36 AD. Pilate was essentially a governor who served as the representative of Tiberius. Pilate himself is portrayed as a cruel ruler who hated Jews and did not understand their religion. It was the governor Pilate who sentenced Jesus to be crucified while also declaring Him innocent.[14]
Although Rome usually allowed various localities to maintain a certain amount of self-governance (provided that these localities stay loyal to Rome and pay their taxes), Rome did reserve for itself the privilege of reviewing cases which may end up in capital punishment — only Roman officials could authorize executions. This is why Pilate got involved in the trial and execution of Jesus Christ.[15]
In addition to being the emperor who appointed Pontius Pilate, it was also Tiberius’ image which was pressed onto the denarius. When asked about whether it is lawful to give tribute to Caesar, Jesus pointed to Tiberius’ image on the coin when He stated, “Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s; and unto God the things that are God’s.”[16]
The coins were reminders to the Jews that they were under Roman oppression. Many Jewish followers of Jesus thought Jesus was going to free them from Roman oppression, which was currently under Tiberius — instead, it was Roman governance which authorized Jesus’ death, putting an end to the fantasy of Jesus as a military messiah. It is also, however, this Roman authorized death which allowed for Christ’s atoning sacrifice to be made; it was under this tyrannical Roman emperor that Jesus resurrected and introduced into the world a new kingdom — the Kingdom of Heaven.
Gaius Caligula (Reigned 37–41 AD)
Caligula was a man of great vice. He would subject women to his lusts, even committing incest with his own sister. He compelled rich men to suicide, confiscating their fortunes. Men of rank were forced to fight as gladiators. When spectators expressed disgust with Caligula’s gladiatorial games, they were arrested and slain. Caligula was a jealous emperor, hating and fearing every provincial governor who distinguished himself in any way. He was slain by Cassius Chaerea, a tribune of the Pretorian Guard, and Sabinus, another officer on January 24th, 41 A.D.[17] As an emperor, Caligula was financially wasteful, politically envious, personally insecure, and uncontrollably lustful.
Caligula did not interact all too much with the early church because, during his reign, Christianity was still considered a sect of Judaism. Caligula did attempt to put a statue of himself into the Holy of Holies in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.
This was to be done in an attempt to present himself as divine. More than just being a theatrical impersonation, Caligula actually intended himself to be identified as a demigod. As a god, his decrees needed no counsel — to offer advice was to show a lack of respect for his self-proclaimed divinity.
After the Jews heard of Caligula’s plan to set up a statue of himself in the Holy of Holies, thousands of Jews protested. They refused to sow their fields and told the governor of Syria Publius Petronius they would rather die than see their temple desecrated. Although the news infuriated Caligula, he was murdered by members of the Roman senate before anything could be done.[18]
Divus Claudius (Reigned 41–54 AD)
Claudius was Caligula’s uncle. A bit of a social outcast, he was timid and stammering. Nonetheless, many wholesome policies were enacted soon after his ascension to power.[19] Claudius even issued an edict reaffirming Jewish traditional privileges and directed the Greek and Jewish communities of Alexandria from further strife.[20]
It should be noted that under the rule of Claudius, Christians were still considered a sect of Judaism, not a separate entity. In the book of Acts, Luke describes a situation that had transpired in Rome — Claudius had commanded all Jews to leave Rome.[21]
As a result, Aquila and Priscilla went to Corinth and met up with Paul. Roman historian Suetonius reports the expelling of Jews from Rome around 49 AD due to a disturbance over someone known as “Chestus.” This is probably a reference to Christ. [22]
This conclusion seems to be confirmed in light of the fact that when Paul met Aquila and Priscilla, they already seemed to be Christians.[23] It seems as though Claudius was not particularly hostile to Jews (and Christians, by extent) — he simply desired to calm unrest in Rome caused by Jews, thus he expelled them from the city.
Nero (Reigned 54–68 AD)
Claudius got married to his niece Agrippina, and her son Domitius was adopted by a weakening Claudius in 50 AD. Domitius was then named Nero. Nero’s mother designated him to be the next emperor after Claudius; she orchestrated the death of Claudius and of the rightful heir Britannicus by poison. Initially, Nero was restrained by the influence of philosopher Seneca; the more time that passed, however, the more Nero transgressed against divine and human law. [24]
In 64 AD, Nero launched his first great official persecution of Christians by the Roman government. In that year, a massive fire swept across Rome and burnt down 10 of its 14 districts. Many suspected it was Nero himself who began this fire so that he could rebuild Rome. In order to divert the population’s anger away from himself, he blamed the Christian community in Rome for the fire.[25]
Roman historian Tacitus, who was alive at this time, explains that Christians “were covered in the skins of wild beasts, torn to death by dogs, crucified, or set ablaze — so that when night-time fell, they lit up everything like torches… People began to feel compassion for them. For they realized that they were being killed, not for the public good, but to gratify one man’s madness.”[26]
It was under Nero that Christianity was officially categorized as a distinct group from Judaism. The Apostles Paul and Peter were likely in Rome during Nero’s persecution, and it seems as though they were both executed at this time. Tradition says that Paul was beheaded, and Peter was crucified upside-down. As a Roman citizen, Paul could not be subjected to the humiliation of crucifixion. Peter found himself unworthy to die in the same way Jesus did, so the authorities agreed to crucify him upside down.[27] At the end of his reign, Nero was declared a public enemy, so he committed suicide.[28]
Persecution Continued
Persecution of the early church did not end with Nero’s death, however. Following Nero, there was a short period of power fluctuation. Galba reigned 68–69 AD, until he was slain by a soldier, his head brought to Ortho. Ortho reigned for three months in 69 AD, then committed suicide. Vitellius reigned for eight months in 69 AD, but was stabbed. After these emperors, Divus Vespasianus reigned 69–79 AD. He was a sound elderly man with much experience. He is known for having ruled wisely and soberly, avoiding cruelty. It was the two successors who followed him that caused trouble for the early church.[29]
The fall of Jerusalem happened under Divus Titus (reigned 79–81 AD). The Jewish Palestinian Christians, obedient to Jesus’ prophetic words in Luke 21:20–24, left Judaea before serious fighting began between the Jews and Romans. As a result of the Jewish Revolt, led by the Zealots, Roman armies completely crushed Jerusalem, reducing the temple to ruins.
The fall of Jerusalem under Divus Titus for Christians in particular meant that there would now be a geographic separation between the church and its Palestinian roots. Since Jewish Christians refused to help Jews in their fighting against the Romans, Jewish Palestinian Christians were considered traitors in Jewish eyes.[30]
Domitian (reigned 81–96 AD) ruled Rome after Titus’ death. Domitian unleashed more persecution onto the early church. It was Domitian who banished John to the island of Patmos, where he wrote the book of Revelation.[31]
Conclusion
Although it may be tempting to conclude from this survey of first century Roman Emperors that they were nothing but a hinderance to Jesus and the early church, this cannot be further from the truth. It must be remembered that Rome established Pax Romana, an unprecedented peace which, in turn, allowed from proper infrastructure to be built (like road systems) which made missionary travel much easier, allowing the gospel spread quickly.
The persecution of Christians did not end with these first century emperors; Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and others continued to torture and martyr Christian believers. Ironically, the more Rome persecuted Christians, the more Christian converts there were. Although often in opposition with both Jesus and the early church, God nonetheless worked out Roman political affairs and early church history for His own glory.
Roman Emperors had a huge impact on the culture and politics during the life of Jesus and the early church. Try as they might, however, they were unable to extinguish the Kingdom of Heaven. Both good and evil came out of Rome as it governed during the time of Jesus’ ministry and the beginnings of the early church.
Ultimately, it is clear that God was in control the entire time, using both the good of Rome (infrastructure, governance, peace, justice, etc.) and the evil of Rome (crucifixion, persecution, intolerance, etc.) for His own glory. Believers today can await the future day when the “Roman spirit” will finally be replaced by a physical millennial rule of Jesus Christ.
Works Cited:
[1] Carol Arrington Ardt, Jill Blackstock, and Dennae White, Heritage Studies 6: Ancient Civilizations, 4th ed. (Greenville, SC: BJU Press, 2018), 189.
[2] Richard W. Bulliet et al., The Earth and Its People: A Global History, 5th ed. (Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011), 147.
[3] Carol Arrington Ardt, Jill Blackstock, and Dennae White, Heritage Studies 6: Ancient Civilizations, 4th ed. (Greenville, SC: BJU Press, 2018), 195–196.
[4] Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power: The Age of the Early Church Fathers, vol. 1 (Glasgow, UK: Bell and Bain, 2016), 28.
[5] E. G. Sihler, “The First Twelve Roman Emperors Their Morals and Characters,” Bibliotheca Sacra 90, no. 358 (1933), 166.
[6] John F. Hall, “Augustus,” essay, in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ed. David Freedman (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000), 130.
[7] Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power: The Age of the Early Church Fathers, vol. 1 (Glasgow, UK: Bell and Bain, 2016), 28–29.
[8] Ibid., 29.
[9] Luke 2:1 KJV
[10] Mark Allan Powell, Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theological Survey, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: BakerAcademic, 2018), 19–21.
[11] E. G. Sihler, “The First Twelve Roman Emperors Their Morals and Characters,” Bibliotheca Sacra 90, no. 358 (1933), 169.
[12] Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power: The Age of the Early Church Fathers, vol. 1 (Glasgow, UK: Bell and Bain, 2016), 31.
[13] John F. Hall, “Tiberius,” essay, in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ed. David Freedman (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000), 1308.
[14] Mark Allan Powell, Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theological Survey, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: BakerAcademic, 2018), 23.
[15] Kevin Collins, The Life of Christ (Greenville, SC: BJU Press, 2019), 44–45.
[16] Matthew 22:21 KJV
[17] E.G. Sihler, “The First Twelve Roman Emperors,” Bibliotheca Sacra 90, no. 359 (1933), 331–333.
[18] Rodger C. Young, “Caligula’s Statue For The Jerusalem Temple And Its Relation To The Chronology Of Herod The Great,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 62, no. 4 (2019), 759–761.
[19] E.G. Sihler, “The First Twelve Roman Emperors,” Bibliotheca Sacra 90, no. 359 (1933), 333–334.
[20] F. F. Bruce, “Christianity Under Claudius,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 44 (1962), https://doi.org/https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/bjrl/claudius_bruce.pdf, 310–311.
[21] Acts 18:1–2
[22] Mark Allan Powell, Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theological Survey, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: BakerAcademic, 2018), 19.
[23] F. F. Bruce, “Christianity Under Claudius,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 44 (1962), https://doi.org/https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/bjrl/claudius_bruce.pdf, 315–316.
[24] E.G. Sihler, “The First Twelve Roman Emperors,” Bibliotheca Sacra 90, no. 359 (1933), 336–338.
[25] Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power: The Age of the Early Church Fathers, vol. 1 (Glasgow, UK: Bell and Bain, 2016), 53.
[26] Tacitus in Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power: The Age of the Early Church Fathers, vol. 1 (Glasgow, UK: Bell and Bain, 2016), 53.
[27] Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power: The Age of the Early Church Fathers, vol. 1 (Glasgow, UK: Bell and Bain, 2016), 53.
[28] E.G. Sihler, “The First Twelve Roman Emperors,” Bibliotheca Sacra 90, no. 359 (1933), 338–342.
[29] E. G. Sihler, “The Twelve First Roman Emperors,” Bibliotheca Sacra 90, no. 360 (1933), 438–440.
[30] Nick Needham, 2000 Years of Christ’s Power: The Age of the Early Church Fathers, vol. 1 (Glasgow, UK: Bell and Bain, 2016), 55–56.
[31] Ibid., 54.
