COUNTRY PROFILE: MALAWI

Compiled by Victor Mwine (Kings College Buddo) featuring History, Military might, political structure, alliances ,cultural history, national debt, economic monetary system, trade data, role & influence in the world etc

1. History

1.1. General history

In 1883, a consul of the British Government was accredited to the “Kings and Chiefs of Central Africa” and in 1891, the British established the British Central Africa Protectorate.

In 1907 the name was changed to Nyasaland or the Nyasaland Protectorate (Nyasa is the Chiyao word for “lake”). In the 1950s, Nyasaland was joined with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in 1953 to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Federation was dissolved on 31 December 1963.

In January 1915, John Chilembwe, a Millenarian pastor in south-eastern Nyasaland, led an unsuccessful revolt, known as the Chilembwe uprising, against British rule. Chilembwe opposed the recruitment of Nyasas in the British army’s campaign in East Africa, as well as the system of colonial rule. Chilembwe’s followers attacked local plantations, but were soon defeated by British forces. Chilembwe was killed, and many of his followers were executed.

In 1944, the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC), inspired by the African National Congress’ Peace Charter of 1914, emerged. NAC soon spread across Southern African with powerful branches emerging among migrant Malawian workers in Salisbury (now Harare) in Southern Rhodesia and Lusaka, in Northern Rhodesia.

Thousands of Nyasalanders fought in the Second World War.

In July 1958, Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda returned to the country after a long absence in the United States, the United Kingdom and Ghana. He assumed leadership of the NAC, which later became the Malawi Congress Party (MCP). In 1959, Banda was sent to Gwelo Prison for his political activities but was released in 1960 to participate in a constitutional conference in London.

On 15 April 1961, the MCP won an overwhelming victory in elections for a new Legislative Council. It also gained an important role in the new Executive Council and ruled Nyasaland in all but name a year later. In a second constitutional conference in London in November 1962, the British Government agreed to give Nyasaland self-governing status the following year.

Hastings Banda became Prime Minister on 1 February 1963, although the British still controlled the country’s financial, security, and judicial systems. A new constitution took effect in May 1963, providing for virtually complete internal self-government.[1]

1.2. Last 50 years

Malawi became a fully independent member of the Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth) on 6 July 1964.

Shortly after, in August and September 1964, Banda faced dissent from most of his cabinet ministers in the Cabinet Crisis of 1964. The Cabinet Crisis began with a confrontation between Banda, the Prime Minister, and all the cabinet ministers present on 26 August 1964. Their grievances were not dealt with, but three cabinet ministers were dismissed on 7 September. These dismissals were followed, on the same day and on 9 September, by the resignations of three more cabinet ministers in sympathy with those dismissed, although one of those who had resigned rescinded his resignation within a few hours. The reasons that the ex-ministers put forward for the confrontation and their subsequent resignations were the autocratic attitude of Banda, who failed to consult other ministers and kept power in his own hands, his insistence on maintaining diplomatic relations with South Africa and Portugal and a number of domestic austerity measures. After continuing unrest and some clashes between their supporters and those of Banda, most of the ex-ministers left Malawi in October. One ex-minister, Henry Chipembere led a small, unsuccessful armed uprising in February 1965. After its failure, he arranged for his transfer to the USA. Another ex-minister, Yatuta Chisiza, organised an even smaller incursion from Mozambique in 1967, in which he was killed. Several of the former ministers died in exile or, in the case of Orton Chirwa in a Malawian jail, but some survived to return to Malawi after Banda was deposed in 1993, and resumed public life.

Two years later, Malawi adopted a republican constitution and became a one-party state with Hastings Banda as its first president.

In 1970, Hastings Banda was declared President for life of the MCP, and in 1971 Banda consolidated his power and was named President for life of Malawi itself. The paramilitary wing of the Malawi Congress Party, the Young Pioneers, helped keep Malawi under totalitarian control until the 1990s.

Banda, who was always referred to as “His Excellency the Life President Ngwazi Dr. H. Kamuzu Banda”, was a dictator. Allegiance to him was enforced at every level. Every business building was required to have an official picture of Banda hanging on the wall. No other poster, clock, or picture could be placed higher on the wall than the president’s picture. The national anthem was played before most events — including movies, plays, and school assemblies. At the cinemas, a video of His Excellency waving to his subjects was shown while the anthem played. When Banda visited a city, a contingent of women was expected to greet him at the airport and dance for him. A special cloth, bearing the President’s picture, was the required attire for these performances. The one radio station in the country aired the President’s speeches and government propaganda. People were ordered from their homes by police, and told to lock all windows and doors, at least an hour prior to President Banda passing by. Everyone was expected to wave.

Among the laws enforced by Banda, it was illegal for women to wear see-through clothes, pants of any kind or skirts which showed any part of the knee. There were two exceptions to this: if they were at a Country Club (a place where various sports were played) and if they were at a holiday resort/hotel, which meant that with the exception of the resort/hotel staff they were not seen by the general populace. Men were not allowed to have hair below the collar; when men whose hair was too long arrived in the country from overseas, they were given a haircut before they could leave the airport. Churches had to be government sanctioned. Members of certain religious groups, such as Jehovah’s Witnesses, were persecuted and forced to leave the country at one time. All Malawian citizens of Indian heritage were forced to leave their homes and businesses and move into designated Indian areas in the larger cities. At one time, they were all told to leave the country, then hand-picked ones were allowed to return. It was illegal to transfer or take privately earned funds out of the country unless approved through proper channels; proof had to be supplied to show that one had already brought in the equivalent or more in foreign currency in the past. When some left, they gave up goods and earnings.

All movies shown in theatres were first viewed by the Malawi Censorship Board. Content considered unsuitable — particularly nudity or political content — was edited. Mail was also monitored by the Censorship Board. Some overseas mail was opened, read, and sometimes edited. Videotapes had to be sent to the Censorship Board to be viewed by censors. Once edited, the movie was given a sticker stating that it was now suitable for viewing, and sent back to the owner. Telephone calls were monitored and disconnected if the conversation was politically critical. Items to be sold in bookstores were also edited. Pages, or parts of pages, were cut out or blacked out of magazines such as Newsweek and Time.

While Malawi was a middle income country in the world during much of Banda’s tenure, he managed to keep peace in the country for most of the time he was in power. He was a wealthy man, like most if not all world leaders. He owned houses (and lived in a palace), businesses, private helicopters, cars and other such luxuries. Speaking out against the President was strictly prohibited. Those who did so were often deported or imprisoned. Banda and his government were criticised for human rights violations by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. After he was deposed, Banda was put on trial for murder and attempts to destroy evidence.

During his rule, Banda was one of the very few post-colonial African leaders to maintain diplomatic relations with Apartheid-era South Africa.

Increasing domestic unrest and pressure from Malawian churches and from the international community led to a referendum in which the Malawian people were asked to vote for either a multi-party democracy or the continuation of a one-party state. On 14 June 1993, the people of Malawi voted overwhelmingly in favour of multi-party democracy. Free and fair national elections were held on 17 May 1994 under a provisional constitution, which took full effect the following year.

Bakili Muluzi, leader of the United Democratic Front (UDF), was elected President in those elections. The UDF won 82 of the 177 seats in the National Assembly and formed a coalition government with the Alliance for Democracy (AFORD). That coalition disbanded in June 1996, but some of its members remained in the government. The President was referred to as Dr Muluzi, having received an honorary degree at Lincoln University in Missouri in 1995. Malawi’s newly written constitution (1995) eliminated special powers previously reserved for the Malawi Congress Party. Accelerated economic liberalisation and structural reform accompanied the political transition.

On 15 June 1999, Malawi held its second democratic elections. Bakili Muluzi was re-elected to serve a second five-year term as President, despite an MCP-AFORD Alliance that ran a joint slate against the UDF.

The aftermath of elections brought the country to the brink of civil strife. Disgruntled Tumbuka, Ngoni and Nkhonde Christian tribes dominant in the north were irritated by the election of Bakili Muluzi, a Muslim from the south. Conflict arose between Christians and Muslims of the Yao tribe (Muluzi’s tribe). Property valued at over millions of dollars was either vandalised or stolen and 200 mosques were torched down.

In 2001, the UDF held 96 seats in the National Assembly, while the AFORD held 30, and the MCP 61. Six seats were held by independents who represent the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) opposition group. The NDA was not recognised as an official political party at that time. The National Assembly had 193 members, of whom 17 were women, including one of the Deputy Speakers.

Malawi saw its very first transition between democratically elected presidents in May 2004, when the UDF’s presidential candidate Bingu wa Mutharika defeated MCP candidate John Tembo and Gwanda Chakuamba, who was backed by a grouping of opposition parties. The UDF, however, did not win a majority of seats in Parliament, as it had done in 1994 and 1999 elections. It successfully secured a majority by forming a “government of national unity” with several opposition parties. Bingu wa Mutharika left the UDF party on 5 February 2005 citing differences with the UDF, particularly over his anti-corruption campaign. He won a second term outright in the 2009 election as the head of a newly founded party, the Democratic Progressive Party.[2]

1.3. Recent history

General elections were held in Malawi on 21 May 2019 to elect the President, National Assembly and local government councillors. Incumbent President Peter Mutharika of the Democratic Progressive Party was re-elected, with his party remaining the largest in the National Assembly. However, on 3 February 2020, the Constitutional Court annulled the presidential election results due to evidence of irregularities, and ordered fresh elections be held.

A total of ten candidates registered to contest the elections. Incumbent President Peter Mutharika of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) ran for a second term in office. Vice-President Saulos Chilima also contested the election as the United Transformation Movement (UTM) candidate, having left the DPP in 2018. The other candidates included Lazarus Chakwera (Malawi Congress Party) and Atupele Muluzi (United Democratic Front).

Former president Joyce Banda (People’s Party) had originally planned to run for the presidency, but withdrew her candidacy two months before the election; she later endorsed opposition candidate Lazarus Chakwera. Ras Chikomeni Chirwa was disqualified due to lack of funds and failing to collect enough signatures.[3]

2. Defense

2.1. Military structure

The Malawi Army is now made up of two rifle regiments and one parachute regiment. The military is organized under the purview of the Ministry of Defence.

The Malawi Air Force (MaAF) was established with German help in 1976 with the delivery of six single engined Dornier Do 27s and eight Do 28 light twins in 1976–1980. Also in the same era the air force received an Alouette III, an AS 350 and an AS 355 Ecureuil, as well as three SA 330 H/L Puma Helicopters from France. A single BAe 125–800 was delivered in 1986. Four Dornier Do 228 light twin turbo props were acquired between 1986 and 1989 in part to allow disposal of the older Dornier products. In 1990 two Douglas C-47s and PT6A turboprops were delivered from the US.[4]

As a landlocked country, Malawi has a very small Navy with no sizeable military craft. Malawi’s naval force only operates on Lake Malawi and is based at Monkey Bay. The Malawi Navy was organized in the early 1970s, with the help of the Navy of Portugal that ceded part of its boats of the Nyassa Flotilla operating from the then Portuguese province of Mozambique. In some cases, the gunboats of the Malawian Navy were initially crewed by Portuguese. In 2007, the navy had 220 personnel,and operated the following vessels:

v Patrol boats

v Namacurra-class harbour patrol boat (P 704 Kaning’a, formerly Y 1520), transferred from South Africa in 1988

v Antares-class patrol boat (P 703 Kasungu, formerly Chikala), out of service since 1993

2.2. Dependency on other nations

State Department IMET training documentation from FY 2003 indicates the United States trained army personnel from the 2nd Battalion, Malawi Rifles, 3rd Battalion, Malawi Rifles (Moyale Barracks), the Parachute Battalion, and the Combat Support Battalion (Mvera).

2.3. Membership of alliances

Malawi has military alliances with The United States of America among others

3. Cultural factors

3.1. Ethnic groups

The Malawi people are of Bantu origin and comprise of many different ethnic groups. These include Chewa, Nyanja, Yao, Tumbuka, Lomwe, Sena, Tonga, Ngoni, Ngonde, Asian and European. The Chichewa (Chewa) people form the largest part of the population group and are largely in the central and southern parts of Malawi. The Yao people are predominately found around the southern area of Lake Malawi and the Tumbuka are found mainly in the north of the country.(There are small populations of Asian and European people living mainly in the cities.[5]

3.2. Religions

44% of the entire population in Malawi are Christian Protestants. There is a rapid growth rate in Protestants in Malawi due to the errors of the Roman Catholic Church. These high numbers have been attributed to the prayers and unity among these churches. The main aim of the churches is to bring out holistic growth in which Christians are committed to both the church and making a difference in their country and society. Though several issues regarding other denominations have been on the rise, Christianity was promoted by the first president of Malawi and flourishing of the churches was witnessed.

Sunni Islam is the second largest religion in Malawi. It was introduced in Malawi by the Arabs and the Swahili traders during the barter trade of ivory, gold, and slaves. Traders from the Kilwa Sultanate and two other Muslim teachers played a significant role in its spread before the 19th century. During the colonial era, Muslim was seen to pose a greater resistance to their rule because it could unite the Africans in hostility. 19% of the country’s population adhere to this religion

The Roman Catholic Church in Malawi is part of the worldwide Catholic Church in Rome under the leadership of the pope. It was introduced in Malawi by the first Catholic missionaries in 1889. After five years upon their arrival, three mission stations were permanently set up to enhance its spread. The first Malawian priest was ordained in 1938 by the white fathers. 18% of Malawian population are Roman Catholics.

Apart from Protestants and the Roman Catholics, there are other small denominations like Baptists, seven-day Adventists, Jehovah’s witnesses, and Anglicans forming 13% of the population.

Despite influences from the missionaries and Arab traders, 6% of the Malawian population still hold on to the traditional African beliefs like the belief in a supreme, belief in spirits, veneration of the death, use of magic and various folk beliefs, as well as traditional witchcraft, is wide spread.[6]

3.3. Cultural history

The human race began on the shores of Lake Malawi, confirmed by the 1991 discovery of a hominid jawbone near Uraha village dated about two and half million years ago, with further human settlement proven between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. Modern man didn’t arrive in the area until about 8,000 BC. Travelers admiring the dramatic Great Rift Valley and its massive lake are gazing on lands first viewed by humanity’s most remote ancestors.

Hunter-gatherers with characteristics resembling the Bushmen of South Africa wandered the country until a thousand years ago. Successive waves of migration by Bantu people displaced the original tribes and established the Maravi Empire by 1500 AD, reaching north of Nkhotakota to the River Zambezi and from the Luanhwa River to Lake Malawi. A hundred years later, tribal people began trading with the Portuguese military and by 1700, the kingdom had broken into individual enclaves.

The Arab/Swahili slave trade was at its height by the 19th century, with an estimated 20,000 people captured and transported in groups of 500 through Nkhotakota to the island of Kilwa to be sold. Chewa tribes were the main traders, selling iron, ivory and slaves destined for plantations in Brazil or Mozambique to the Portuguese and Zanzibar Arab slavers. The 1859 arrival of British missionary and explorer David Livingstone brought links to the Scottish Presbyterian church resulting in a missionary invasion of the region in an attempt to end the slave trade and convert the tribes.

The oldest forms of music and dance are found in the mysterious Gule Wamkulu region with its unique, ancient beliefs. Gule dancers are believed to have the power to summon the spirits of ancestors and animals through their movement, while Chitelele dances are performed across the country at inter-village contests by young girls.

Batik and carving are highly-respected art forms in Malawi, with designs representing stylized pictures of village life and animals. Teak, ebony and mahogany carvings including masks, figurines, traditional three-legged tables, and chiefs’ chairs are highly coveted souvenirs. Literature is via oral tradition, although nowadays ancient legends and tales are written down for posterity.[7]

4. Political structure

4.1. Origin of political structure

The Malawi political structure and system of government is derived from the Constitution of 1995.

4.2. Constitution and government

Under the 1995 constitution, the president, who is both chief of state and head of the government, is chosen through universal direct suffrage every 5 years. Malawi has a vice president who is elected with the president. The president has the option of appointing a second vice president, who must be from a different party. It also includes a presidentially appointed cabinet. The members of the cabinet of Malawi can be drawn from either within or outside of the legislature

The National Assembly has 193 members, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies. The constitution also originally provided for a second house, a Senate of 80 seats, but to date no action has been taken to create the Senate, and the provisions allowing for its creation were deleted in 2001. The Senate is intended to provide representation for traditional leaders and the different geographical districts, as well as various special interest groups, such as women, youth, and the disabled.

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. Malawi’s judicial system, based on the English model, is made up of magisterial lower courts, a High Court, and a Supreme Court of Appeal.

Malawi has as its highest court a Supreme Court of Appeal with jurisdiction only in appeals from lower courts. Its members include the Chief Justice and nine other Supreme Court justices. The High Court of Malawi has unlimited original jurisdiction to hear and determine any civil or criminal proceedings. Most High Court cases are heard before a single judge, without a jury, but cases on constitutional matters must be heard by three judges: there is a Chief Judge and 19 other High Court judges. The High Court has a General Division which may also hear appeals from subordinate courts, and a Commercial Division, dealing with commercial or business cases. One subordinate court is the Industrial Relations Court with jurisdiction over employment issues. Cases before it are heard informally, and with some restrictions on legal representation, by a panel consisting of a chairperson and one representative each of employers and employees. Other subordinate courts are the Magistrate Courts and Local or Traditional Courts. These have defined criminal and civil jurisdiction depending ontheir level, but expressly excluding cases of treason, murder or manslaughter.

Local government is carried out in 28 districts within three regions administered by regional administrators and district commissioners who are appointed by the central government.[8]

4.3. Stability and policy of present government

Malawi is a democratic, multi-party government, currently under the leadership of Peter Mutharika.

As of 2017, international observers noted issues in several human rights areas. Excessive force was seen to be used by police forces, security forces were able to act with impunity, mob violence was occasionally seen, and prison conditions continued to be harsh and sometimes life-threatening. However, the government was seen to make some effort to prosecute security forces who used excessive force. Other legal issues included limits on free speech and freedom of the press, lengthy pretrial detentions, and arbitrary arrests and detentions. Societal issues found included violence against women, human trafficking, and child labour. Corruption within the government is seen as a major issue, despite the Malawi Anti-Corruption Bureau’s (ACB) attempts to reduce it. The ACB appears to be successful at finding and prosecuting low level corruption, but higher level officials appear to be able to act with impunity. Corruption within security forces is also an issue. Malawi had one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world. In 2015 Malawi raised the legal age for marriage from 15 to 18. Other issues that have been raised are lack of adequate legal protection of women from sexual abuse and harassment, very high maternal mortality rate, and abuse related to accusations of witchcraft.

As of 2010, homosexuality has been illegal in Malawi. In one 2010 case, a couple perceived as homosexual faced extensive jail time when convicted. The convicted pair, sentenced to the maximum of 14 years of hard labor each, were pardoned two weeks later following the intervention of United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon. In May 2012, then-President Joyce Banda pledged to repeal laws criminalizing homosexuality.[9]

5. Natural resources

5.1. Basic commodities produced

Malawi’s most important export crop is tobacco, which accounted for a third (30%) of export revenue in 2012. In 2000, the country was the tenth-largest producer in the world. The country’s heavy reliance on tobacco places a heavy burden on the economy as world prices decline and the international community increases pressure to limit tobacco production. Malawi’s dependence on tobacco is growing, with the product jumping from 53% to 70% of export revenues between 2007 and 2008.

The country also relies heavily on tea, sugarcane and coffee, with these three plus tobacco making up more than 90% of Malawi’s export revenue. Tea was first introduced in 1878. Most of it is grown in Mulanje and Thyolo. Other crops include cotton, corn, potatoes, sorghum, cattle and goats. Tobacco and sugar processing are notable secondary industries.

Traditionally Malawi has been self-sufficient in its staple food, maize (corn), and during the 1980s it exported substantial quantities to its drought-stricken neighbors. Nearly 90% of the population engages in subsistence farming. Smallholder farmers produce a variety of crops, including maize, beans, rice, cassava, tobacco, and groundnuts (peanuts). Financial wealth is generally concentrated in the hands of a small elite. Malawi’s manufacturing industries are situated around the city of Blantyre.

Malawi has few exploitable mineral resources. A South-African Australian consortium exploits uranium at a mine near Karonga. Coal is being extracted in Mzimba District.[10]

5.2. Trade agreements

5.3. Degree of self sufficiency

In 2018 Malawi was the number 142 economy in the world in terms of GDP (constant 2011 international USD), the number 151 in total exports, and the number 163 in total imports. In 2018, Malawi exported $998M and imported $1.51B, resulting in a negative trade balance of -$514M. In 2018, Malawi’s exports per capita were $55 and its imports per capita were $83.3.

The top exports of Malawi are Raw Tobacco ($694M), Tea ($89.8M), Other Nuts ($32.8M), Raw Sugar ($32.6M), and Soybean Meal ($22M). The top imports of Malawi are Packaged Medicaments ($97.7M), Broadcasting Equipment ($74.2M), Filing Cabinets ($53.5M), Delivery Trucks ($36.9M), and Coated Flat-Rolled Iron ($31.1M).[11]

6. Economy

6.1. Monetary system

The economy of Malawi is predominantly agricultural, with about 80% of the population living in rural areas. The landlocked country in south central Africa ranks among the world’s least developed countries. In 2017, agriculture accounted for about one-third of GDP and about 80% of export revenue. The economy depends on substantial inflows of economic assistance from the IMF, the World Bank, and individual donor nations. The government faces strong challenges: to spur exports, to improve educational and health facilities, to face up to environmental problems of deforestation and erosion, and to deal with the problem of HIV/AIDS in Africa.[12]

6.2. Dependency and debt

Malawi recorded a government debt equivalent to 62 percent of the country’s Gross Domestic Product in 2019.[13]

Debt/GDP ratio of Malawi from 2010 to 2022

6.3. Membership of economic and trade organisations

Malawi is a member of the following international organizations: UN and some of its specialized and related agencies (i.e. UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO), IMF, World Bank, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), Berne Convention, Universal Copyright Convention, Non-Aligned Movement, G-77, and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Malawi is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).[14]

6.4. Views on world problems

Like many other countries, Malawi reformed its environmental policies and laws following the 1992 United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED).

The policy and law reform process commenced in 1994 with the development of the National Environmental Action Plan.

It culminated in the development of the National Environmental Policy and the Environment Management Act (EMA 1996) in 1996.

The EMA 1996 provides for “the protection and management of the environment and the conservation and sustainable utilization of natural resources.”

The salient features of the Act include the provision of an elaborate institutional framework for the coordination of environmental rule-making, rule-implementation and rule adjudication in Malawi.[15]

6.5. Role and influence in the world

Malawi is a member of many international organizations and alliances as earlier elaborated.

6.6. Membership of blocs and geo political groupings

Malawi is a member of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Lome Convention, African Development Bank (AFDB), Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA)

7. Geography

7.1. Bordering countries & Topography

Topographically, Malawi lies within the Great Rift Valley system. Lake Malawi, a body of water some 580 km (360 mi) long and about 460 m (1,500 ft) above sea level, is the country’s most prominent physical feature. About 75% of the land surface is plateau between 750 m and 1,350 m (2,460 and 4,430 ft) above sea level. Highland elevations rise to over 2,440 m (8,000 ft) in the Nyika Plateau in the north and at Mt. Sapitwa (3,000 m/9,843 ft). The lowest point is on the southern border, where the Shire River approaches its confluence with the Zambezi at 37 m (121 ft) above sea level.[16]

Location of Malawi

Compiled by

Mwine Victor [gmail][yahoo]

[1] History of Malawi. (2020, May 30). Retrieved June 07, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Malawi

[2] History of Malawi. (2020, May 30). Retrieved June 07, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Malawi

[3] Elections in Malawi. (2020, February 05). Retrieved June 07, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_Malawi

[4] Malawian Defence Force. (2020, May 13). Retrieved June 07, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawian_Defence_Force

[5] People of Malawi. (n.d.). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://www.earth-cultures.com/cultures/people-of-malawi

[6] Kimutai, K. (2017, April 25). Religious Beliefs In Malawi. Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/religious-beliefs-in-malawi.html

[7] Malawi — History and Culture. (n.d.). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/africa/malawi/history-and-culture

[8] Politics of Malawi. (2020, May 08). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Malawi

[9] Malawi. (2020, June 02). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malawi

[10] Economy of Malawi. (2020, February 25). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Malawi

[11] Malawi (MWI) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners. (n.d.). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://oec.world/en/profile/country/mwi/

[12] Economy of Malawi. (2020, February 25). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Malawi

[13] Malawi Government Debt to GDP2003–2019 Data: 2020–2022 Forecast: Historical. (n.d.). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://tradingeconomics.com/malawi/government-debt-to-gdp

[14] Foreign relations of Malawi. (2020, May 03). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Malawi

[15] Banda, C. (2019). Administrative Justice, Environmental Governance and the Rule of Law in Malawi (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from CHIKOSA BANDA

[16] Malawi — Topography. (n.d.). Retrieved June 08, 2020, from https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Malawi-TOPOGRAPHY.html