Theoretical framework and Literature Review
As stated earlier in this paper, the craft of music education has remained largely ethnocentric since the birth of the United States. While music classes focus on achieving higher rates of student engagement and achievement, many educators work against this goal by strictly teaching a western European musical style that is irrelevant to many students today. Culturally relevant pedagogy in music education serves as the theoretical framework for this study for two reasons: 1. ) There are too many genres to study each offering their own merits to focus solely on one and, 2. ) The culture of the United States is diverse; focusing on a single style of music would misrepresent an accurate portrayal of society—leaving students ill prepared for the world after public school.
Gustafson (2008) states that the history of music education in the United States has perpetuated a dominant white culture in school music programs. Teachers perpetuate the “Dancing Mad,” or the perceived musical ignorance (p. 269), by either consciously discounting non-classical music as “unworthy” or unconsciously by blindly following tracks of previous educators and curriculum without considering the culture of the students and the school. Furthermore, when multicultural education is pursued, it runs the risk of becoming artificial and superficial.
Much research has been dedicated to the use of hip-hop in the classroom. This research shows that students can learn the same principals of art music through different genres and styles. Music educators who successfully employ the use of hip-hop in their teaching are successful because they strive to make it authentic for their students. As the times change so do the musical preferences of the youth culture. The following sections will breakdown the literature further and give insight on what scholars in the field agree on what should be done in the classroom.
Ladson-Billings (1995) defines culturally relevant pedagogy as, “pedagogy of opposition. . . but specifically committed to collective, not merely individual, empowerment” (p. 160). Thus, culturally relevant pedagogy is teaching that places the needs of the learner(s) first rather than specific paths of content. Teachers should focus on prior experiences outside of the classroom, how to build upon those experiences, and capitalize on their cultural knowledge (Shaw, 2012). In short, school should be a place where students can ‘be themselves’ (Ladson-Billings, 1995, p. 161).
For culturally relevant pedagogy to be authentic and successful, three aspects should be considered: academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness (Ladson-Billings, p. 160). The following sections will explain each of these concepts in greater detail.
Academic success in the classroom under the frame of culturally relevant pedagogy is the development of essential skills despite inequity (p. 160). All students in the United States are required to develop a mastery of literacy, mathematics, technology, and social skills in order to graduate and be active participants in society (p. 160). A common mistake of many educators is the focus primarily on self-esteem (Dekaney & Robinson, 2013, p.3). Good teachers utilizing culturally relevant pedagogy go further than merely making students ‘feel good’—they develop and produce excellence in students. Good teachers do this by choosing paths for students to make meaningful connections and choosing academic excellence.
Musically, this would resemble similar qualities. Students will be learning the same behaviors, skill sets, and qualities of music as classically oriented students however, the medium or vehicle for this acquisition is different that traditional methods in music education. All music demonstrates the same qualities and any music, with a few exceptions, can be used to teach any of these elements (Ponick, 2000, n. p. ).
The ‘meat and potatoes’ of the culturally relevant pedagogy framework is cultural competence. For students to learn effectively, they need to maintain and identify with their culture. The modern public school setting can be hostile and behaviors that are not ideal manifest themselves in ‘styling and posturing’ (Ladson-Billings, 1995) This will look like a student being chastised for specific clothing choices rather than comportment. The author also cites Fordham & Ogbu (1986) for the phenomenon of “acting White” (pp. 160-161). This is the behavior of casting aside qualities of the oppressor (white middle class) in fear of being ridiculed by their peers. In terms of public school, their peers will identify students who engage in school activities or value academic success as ‘acting White’ (p. 161).
A widely cited author on black culture, William E. Cross states, “African American self-concept depends heavily on their reference group orientation, or how well they feel that their own personal identity as an African American aligns with the norms and expectations of the culture that surrounds them” (Fitzpatrick, 2012, p. 54). In music education, choices in the classroom should identify with students’ culture. Furthermore, Fitzpatrick also states, “When a student sees that the music that he or she enjoys and values at home or with friends is ignored or degraded by institutions, such as schools, it creates cultural conflict” (p. 54). This cultural conflict can be seen as the fear of ‘acting white. ’ With culture being the vehicle of education, denying a student’s preference of music in the scope of development would further ostracize students from the program.
The Problem: Ethnocentricity in Music Education
As I stated earlier, both Shaw (2012) and Gustafson (2008) state that music education has the tendency to remain largely ethnocentric. Ethnocentricity in music education is the notion that only music of the highest regard is the only music worth studying insisting that students should listen to music and behave in a particular fashion. Gustafson (2008) proclaims that the music curriculum for music education perpetuates the White culture of “entrainment,” or the bodily response to music, and rejects difference as unworthy. In other words, the curriculum rewards the behavior of what has been defined as the meritious music maker and rejects the behaviors of what does not align to “Whiteness” (p. 268). Students who exhibit this behavior are referred to as the “drifters” or the “dancing mad” (p. 269).
Furthermore, Gustafson (2008) goes at length to state that students who did not exemplify what were defined as “refined vocal techniques” were regarded as “barbaric” (p. 276). Singing with proper vocal technique, as Gustafson alludes to, is in reference to the western style of singing art music. The author quotes who is regarded as the father of American music education Lowell Mason (1856) as saying, “[Western vocal technique] is a respite of intellectual character. . . modest and retiring” (p. 276) in light of dance music that was popular at social gatherings at the time. This proper vocal technique and study of classical art music was to promote self-control and cure “inferior faculties of mind” (p. 276).
Musicologists at the turn of the twentieth century focused on the behaviors elicited from classical music against those of Jazz. Some scholars even compared photographs of listeners of Jazz and classical music. These musicologists reported that listeners of Jazz were often puzzled and even upset while the listeners of classical music were introspective and reverent (Gustafson, 2008). Furthermore, the scholars go so far as to conclude that repetition of classical music passages (to non-classical music listeners) improved posture and the urge to smile and promotes the “best kind of morale while listening to Jazz makes for bored listlessness” (p. 277). The syncopated rhythm of Jazz was said to disrupt the “development of reason.“ Music that has a regular pulsing on the first beat of the measure is considered strong—a notion that we still hold true today. However, scholars of the time insisted that strong syncopation, or displacement of the strong beat, bred anti-social, brooding behavior in youth. Music that fits the anti-thesis of this classical, reverent mindset includes Jazz, rock and roll, ragtime, and swing, all of which have been banned from schools at some point and have caused a stir. The things that these genres and styles have in common are displacement of the strong beat, whether it is the two-and-four backbeat of rock, jazz, and swing or the constant swaying of ragtime.
Late-nineteenth century scholars of music education promoted the idea that classical music “cultivated a persona of supreme being and reason . . . suitable for approaching the gods” (Gustafson, 2008, p. 276). The rise of music appreciation societies took off in the early twentieth century, casting aside popular music, jazz, and folk as unworthy—music of Blacks, immigrants, and industrial laborers (p. 279). Music such as spirituals were associated with exoticism and music societies considered all black music ‘primitive. ’ The rise of the middle class in the beginning of the twentieth century promoted the expansion of music societies and classical listening guides which further alienated the black and immigrant cultures in turn, “further manifesting Whiteness and superior intelligence” (p. 279).
Today, music education standards and indicators have changed, yet music educators still habitually distinguish quality by alignment to a classical behavior regardless of the undefined musical repertoire. In her article on culturally responsive teaching in choral ensembles, Shaw (2012) states, “While upholding a rich, Western classical tradition is an achievement that should be celebrated and continued, educators should be also aware of ways in which choral music education can be prone to ethnocentrism in its practice” (p. 76). Educators are beginning to realize the error in ethnocentrism and the disempowerment that exclusion of certain styles and genres of music can bring students.
Changing Tides: Current Practice and Preference
Currently, many music educators have experienced wide successes utilizing popular music in the classroom to facilitate many of the national standards of music education. In order for these practices to work, students must feel that they are valued before they buy into an idea. Mixon (2009) argues for the case of diversified music in the classroom, stating that only teaching the classics alienates students and makes them feel their music is unimportant (p. 68). Mixon makes his point further by also insisting that teachers can facilitate multicultural merit by consistently teaching that all music has merit (p. 67). This point is further argued by Fitzpatrick (2012) who insists that music educators can be “proactive in recognizing the unique potential of each individual, regardless of cultural background” (p. 55). These two scholars support the notion that music of varying cultural backgrounds can have merit in the classroom, not only to students who identify with it but also students who do not.
Music educators are becoming more wary of so –called ‘multicultural’ arrangements in performing ensembles. Shaw (2012) urges educators of performing ensembles to be wary of validity in these arrangements. She states, “Many published “multi- cultural” choral octavos can be characterized as “arrangements based upon international material,” often created by someone from outside of the culture of origin” (p. 77). Mixon (2009) argues in conjunction with Shaw that, “Many published “multicultural” choral octavos can be characterized as ‘arrangements based upon international material,’ often created by someone from outside of the culture of origin” (p. 67). Arrangers of such ‘multicultural’ music are not experts in the culture that is being represented. Shaw (2012) reminds us that the students who identify with these cultures are the real experts and to deny them of this is to disempower them (p. 77).
Educators have reported that teaching hip-hop in the classroom gives the genre validity (Pearlmutter, 2012,). Many educators agree with this stance on popular music. Recently, music educators have turned to analyzing the musical qualities of hip-hop as well. Pearlmutter (2012) uses rap in the classroom to teach the larger concept of rhythmic invention (p. 50). Other educators also take the ‘genre-as-vehicle’ approach and explore other overreaching themes of music such as instrumentation, rhythm, text painting, etc. With the face of popular music changing youth perceptions, Thibeault (2010) uses the rap music of Lil’ Wayne to teach about music technology and recording while simultaneously educating about possible careers in music ). Thibeault goes on to state, “Repetition is a device that scholars have explored. Susan McClary connects the repetitive should be understood as reactions to the prior dominance of epic narrative music such as Mahler and structures of time found in hip-hop with minimalism, suggesting that hip-hop and minimalism Beethoven” (p. 49).
Many teachers create cross-curricular ties by analyzing the lyrics of rap songs (Ladson-Billings, 1995, p. 168). Other educators simply use it as a device to teach awareness of basic musical qualities such as form, dynamics, lyrics, etc. and how these devices create meaning (Vagi, 2010, p. 28). Educators are using the qualities and devices of the classical music training they received in their teacher education and applying it to music that students are currently listening to. Vagi (2010) recalls his experience in having students apply an analytical approach to current music:
My students also gain background knowledge of the music they listen to every day. They’re encouraged to reflect on and form opinions about the music that’s often passively consumed but still considered a part of their social and cultural identity (p. 30).
Culturally relevant pedagogy takes the skills that are demanded of educators and allows students to effectively articulate preference in music, which furthers their intrinsic interest and gives them the tools to make informed decisions and inferences about art in general.
Based on the research above, I have developed several research questions. These questions are aimed at understanding student’s current preference in music and how educators should go about culturally responsive teaching.
1. What are students’ current musical interests/preferences
2. Are educators currently responding to these interests under the light of the Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE) music standards?
3. Does culturally relevant pedagogy maintain and boost students’ intrinsic interest in general music?
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