Review of Literature
Dr. Abdo Albahesh
2.1 Introduction
Public Relations has been practiced all over the world as an instrument of organizational development. Propaganda has become a prominent tool of Public Relations over the years. Broadcasting has become an important sector of public instruction, entertainment and welfare in The Republic of Yemen. The Yemeni Space Channel has also become a prominent broadcasting institution in The Republic of Yemen. It broadcasts political propaganda programes in order to popularise the beneficial effects of the policies, plans, programmes and services of The Republic of Yemen among the people.
The primary goals of these propaganda programmes are to bridge the communication gap between the government and people and to enlist the active participation of the people in nation building activities. But there is inadequate empirical evidence about the role of broadcasting in national development in general and impact of political propaganda contents of main newscasts of Yemeni Space Channel on the audiences in particular.
A brief survey of the notable works done in the field of broadcasting and propaganda are presented in this chapter under different headings, namely, international studies, Arabic studies, Indian studies and Karnataka state studies.
2.2. International Studies:
The Harward Institute for Propaganda Analysis (1937) carried out a pioneering research on how to use propaganda in 1930s. The study identified several techniques of propaganda which are applicable to mass media including entertainment and persuasion media. The study precisely dealt with the analysis of political propaganda techniques which have direct application to the news media.
Hayakawa (1939) evaluated the general semantics and propaganda. The scholar noted that awareness and application of semantic formulations have resulted in empirically improved levels of perception, reading, writing, speaking, genealised intelligence and open-mindedness with respect to media-oriented propaganda. The study dealt with semantic formulations which have direct application to media propaganda rather than political propaganda.
Davidson (1941) documented the propaganda techniques among the leading organizers of the American Revolution and brought out a book on the history of the propaganda during the American Revolution. The scholar observed that the American propagandists employed a wide variety of techniques to arouse public sentiments against the British. The scholar had traced the history of political propaganda in America.
Doob (1954) analysed the Goebbel’s principles of propaganda. The scholar quoted from Goebbel’s diary that “the best form of newspaper propaganda was not propaganda (i.e., editorials and exhortation), but the news which appeared to be straight. But Hobenberg opposes those techniques of propaganda since straight news and libelous publication offer little or no defence to the professional journalists. The study dealt with media propaganda in general rather than political propaganda in particular.
Rahim (1961) evaluated the agricultural development propaganda launched by the Bangladesh government. The primary objectives of the study were to find out how farmers learn about improved agricultural practices, what are the patterns of interaction among the farmers and how the development propaganda contents facilitated adoption of improved agricultural practices in rural Bangladesh. The study revealed that the absence of impersonal channels of communication and effective agriculture development propaganda affected the agricultural development in Bangladesh. The researcher did not study the electronic media centered political propaganda in a comprehensive way.
Qualter (1962) studied the relationship between propaganda and psychological warfare. The researcher observed that a student of propaganda should not limit himself to a review of the editorial or opinion pages of the newspaper in order to project his argument. This study did not specifically analyse the political propaganda carried out by the media. It was restricted to the role of propaganda as an instrument of psychological warfare.
Rogers et.al. (1965) analyzed the impact of communication on modernization among the Colombian villagers. They examined the relationship between media exposure, development propaganda, achievement motivation and rural modernization in Colombia. The report affords a detailed look into the middle-range, theory analysis with special reference to development propaganda. The study had not chiefly focused on the role of political propaganda in rural modernization.
Elluel (1973) conducted a seminal research on propaganda with special respect to formation of men’s attitudes. The researcher opined that man in a technological society needs to be propagandised to be integrated into society by means of the mass media. Man with such a need gets carried along unconsciously on the surface of events, not thinking about them but rather feeling them, according to Elluel. The study deals with the mass media propaganda in general rather than political propaganda in particular.
Peterson, Jenson and Rivers (1965) examined the relationship between mass media and modern society. The researchers observed that media professionals viewed propaganda as an inevitability and that the patterns of information people received from the mass media enabled them to make sense of the modern world. The study deals with the mass media propaganda in general rather than political propaganda in particular.
Sorensen (1968) studied the story of American propaganda. The scholar observed that U.S. propagandists worked to enhance the political persuasiveness of America’s propaganda by obscuring the source. A large percentage of United States Information Agency (USIA) operatives maintained a network of contacts with journalists and media outlets around the world. Many of them knowingly cooperated with the agency in placing unattributed materials prepared by the US government. It was indeed a specific study of American political propaganda carried out by USIA.
Chu and Schramm (1968) evaluated the role of television as an effective tool of instruction. It was observed that instructional television works best if it is an integral part of development. The researchers have suggested that effective use of television facilitates meaningful public instruction. The researchers had not prominently analysed the role of television as an instrument of political propaganda.
Gomez (1970) studied the role of local radio stations in community development with special reference to Philippines. It was observed that broadcasting of publicity and propaganda programmes in association with government and non-government agencies would boost community development. The study was limited to the analysis of the role of local radio in rural development rather than community level political propaganda strategies.
Gordon (1971) analysed the theory and practice of manipulative communication from the point of view of persuasion. The researcher stated that media provide a kind of manipulative communication which did not benefit the mankind. But the findings lack authenticity and comprehensiveness and do not lend themselves to a broad enough theoretical model of propaganda. This study is not directly associated with political propaganda.
Castilo et.al. (1971) assessed the relationship between rural communication, development propaganda and adoption of innovation in Philippines. The study suggests certain locally relevant development propaganda strategies in order to boost the agricultural progress in the rural areas. The study was restricted to the analysis of the role of media in the adoption of innovation rather than rural development oriented political propaganda strategies.
Haring (1972) examined the relationship between community communication and modernization of local farmers. The study dealt with farm management communication. It was found that homogenous groupings were reluctant to the local setting. The researcher had restricted the analysis to the role of inter-personal channels in the process of community development rather than grassroots political propaganda techniques.
Crawford (1972) evaluated the utility of traditional media in family planning programmes in rural Jawa. It was observed that traditional media such as folk theatre forms, puppetry, rural drama and festivals could be used as effective tools of development propaganda in rural Jawa. The study was confined to the role of folk media in the process of rural development rather than political propagandas.
Sommerland (1972) analysed the use of satellites for educational television in developed nations. The researcher had explored the possibilities of utilizing satellite communication for publicity, propaganda and developmental endeavors especially in developing nations. The study was restricted to the analysis of the educational television rather than television centered political propaganda.
Berrigan (1975) examined the role of community media in development. It was observed that communications media were the effective instruments of participatory democracy. The study had not adequately assessed the role of political propaganda in community development.
Segasti (1975) analysed the role of communication in the process of rural development. It was noticed that rural development could be boosted through expansion and localization of existing communication technologies. The study had not adequately focused on the role of political propaganda at the grassroots level.
Katz and Wedel (1977) examined the status, problems and prospects of broadcasting from the point of view of national development. The researchers had not covered the political propaganda programmes broadcast by the electronic media in particular.
Black (1977) presented a paper on mass media propaganda at the annual convention of the Association for Education in Journalism. The scholar observed that there is a pattern of behaviour on the part of media practitioners that repeatedly finds them jumping to conclusions, acting as advocates, making assumptions based on previous experience rather than the evidence at hand and approaching their assignments with preconceived notions. The scholar emphatically stated that media professionals are acting as propagandists. The study deals with mass media propaganda in general rather than political propaganda in particular.
Winkler (1978) analysed the politics of propaganda carried out by the Office of War Information in the United States of America. The study revealed that various information programes were combined into the Office of War Information (OWI) in 1942 under the direction of the well known journalist and broadcaster Elmar Davis. This agency conducted domestic and international propaganda on a massive scale and provided a new dimension to political propaganda in United States.
Hancock (1978) conducted a study on communication planning for national development in Thailand. The range of analysis was also wide since it covered communication projects from the institutional to the national level. The study was limited to development of mass media systems rather than specific political propaganda contents of mass media in Thailand.
Fernandez (1980) assessed the multi-media support for agriculture development in Masagana. The researcher had explored the ways and means of promoting agriculture development through development propaganda strategies. The researcher had not studied the role of political propaganda in agriculture development in particular.
Imboden (1980) assessed the need and importance of managing information for rural development projects in African countries. It was found that political and institutional support services were inadequate. It was suggested that information system has to be developed at the planning stage by the decision makers in consultation with the information specialists. The researcher had not examined the vital element of political propaganda in development project support communication system.
Lent (1981) assessed the government-media relationship in Netherlands. The researcher noticed that the communication structure of the Netherlands Antilles was very poor and the media were commercially cheapest way possible. The researcher had suggested that the government should give the media a hand to be broader, more positive and less dependent upon commercials in order to play a bigger role in the progress of the country. The researcher had not analysed the political propaganda carried out by the media in Netherlands in particular.
Lent (1981) analysed the role of mass media including broadcasting in the Virgin Islands. The researcher found that the media were free to cover the legislature and there were no local regulations governing broadcasters. The researcher also found that political campaign was not an issue in the Virgin Island. The study did not make any specific analysis of political propaganda broadcast by the electronic media in Virgin Island.
Boyd (1983) examined the cross-cultural international broadcasting in Arabic region. The researcher observed that the economic and political development of the Arab world especially since 1973 were responsible for the creation of new Arabic broadcasting services. It was also found that military and political conflicts increased media consumption in the Arab states. There was no specific assessment of the political propaganda contents of electronic media in the Arab world.
Kepplinger (1983) evaluated the political parties’ communication policy in the Federal Republic of Germany. It was observed that the formulation of communications policy was based on general political ideologies. Besides this, the communication policies of Federal Republic of Germany contained mainly liberal elements. The researcher did not make any specific analysis of the political propaganda contents of media in the Federal Republic of Germany.
Haule (1984) conducted a systematic study on old paradigm and new paradigm in the African context. The researcher noted that the old paradigm of development was problematic in Africa and other Third Word Countries due to inequality of distribution of information and economic resources. The researcher had suggested alternative pathway to development in these under-privileged nations. The researcher had not analysed the role of political propaganda in the process of nationl development of African continent which is a part of a larger international system and global community.
Gilljam (1984) conducted pluralistic and Marxist agenda-setting research in order to find out as to whether the mass media had an agenda setting function. The researcher observed that there was integration of the relationship between the media agenda and the public agenda into a more general framework. The researcher had not analysed the political propaganda of mass media in particular.
Onyedke (1984) studied the effects of government press relations in Nigeria with special reference to the press laws. The researcher observed that the government press relations in Nigeria had been turbulent in view of the harsh laws which limited the abilities of journalists to perform their duties. The researcher did not make any specific analysis of the political propaganda contents of the Nigerian press.
Radojkovic (1984) examined eight considerations on new information technology and development of democracy. The researcher observed that information technology was rarely let out of the preserve of political power since the control over information technology was a growing source of social power. The researcher has suggested that the new forms of political behaviour compatible with the new abilities of information technology should be developed. The study was limited to the role of new information technology in democracy. The researcher had not analysed the political propaganda of new media in perticular.
Uche (1985) made a scientific analysis of the politics of Nigeria’s radio broadcasting industry. It was noticed that the broadcast industry was restructured by the military rulers in order to ensure political stability, co-existence, national integration and security. The colonial and post-independence politics mainly influenced the structure of national broadcasting system. The political propaganda contents of the Nigerian radio broadcasting were not analyzed by the researcher in particular.
Bishop (1985) systematically assessed the principal political pressure exerted by the Hong Kong Government on television channels, namely Rediffusion Television (RTV) and Hong Kong Television Broadcast Ltd. (HK-TVB). It was found that political propaganda had not been a predominant factor in keeping media products out of Hong Kong but it impeded the export of media products to Southeast Asia. The researcher had not assessed the services political propaganda services of the television channels in Hong Kong.
Jakubowicz (1985) evaluated the role of broadcasting in social transformation with special reference to Poland. The researcher observed that a democratic-participant media theory was followed by the broadcasters in Poland. The researcher has also suggested that narrowcasting was practically useful in order to reach out to the people and ensure social transformation. The researcher did not make any specific analysis of political propaganda services broadcast over Poland.
Rorschach (1985) examined the princely patriotism and political propaganda in Hanoverian England. This study outlined the details of Prince Frederick’s patronage and collecting and sets them in context by comparing them to the activities of his contemporaries. The researcher had examined the political propaganda in particular.
Burton (1985) studied politics, propaganda and public opinion in the reigns of Henry III and Edward I in English. The study reveals that the development of political propaganda began during Henry III’s reign. The researcher focused the attention of policy makers on the ancient political propaganda techniques adopted by the Royal Family in Britain.
Evans (1985) examined the legends of early Rome which were used as means of political propaganda in the Roman Republican and Augustan Periods. The study revealed that the early propaganda techniques had tremendous impact on the people and generated rulers-friendly public opinion in Rome.
Domatob (1985) examined the relationship between radio broadcasting and rural exodus with special reference to Cameroun. The researcher noted that radio was the best means of communicating with the Cameroun population in the countryside. Besides this, Radio Cameroun also played an effective role in containing the rural exodus. There was no specific analysis of the propaganda programmes of Radio Cameroun by the researcher.
Jayaweera (1985) studied the role of satellite communication in community development in Sri Lanka. The researcher had identified the relevance of communication satellites in the age of information revolution. The researcher did not suggest any media or method for improving the quality of political propaganda in space channels.
Moore (1986) analysed the role of communication in village level development in Sri Lanka. The researcher reported that effective propaganda techniques and services were mainly responsible for the success of Sarvodaya Movement (collective welfare movement) in Sri Lanka. The researcher had also examined the need and importance of political propaganda with reference to collective welfare in Sri Lanka.
Urspung (1986) examined the influence of political propaganda on voters and analysed the behavior of the interest groups in the face of the influence being exercised. The researchers observed that the greater the likelihood of a certain decision being reached by a fully informed electrorate, the more probable, it is that the same decision will be accepted by the uninformed electrorate. There was a specific analysis of political propaganda by the researcher.
Zaffiro (1986) assessed the political legitimacy and broadcasting with special reference to Zimbabwe. The researcher noted that broadcasting was a key instrument of information control through its capacity to collect, process and disseminate political information state-wide. The study further revealed that political out-groups in Zimbabwe had access to political arena through broadcasting while entrenched groups used it to slow or retard their advances. The political propaganda contents of broadcasting in Zimbabwe were not analyzed by the researcher in particular.
Anokwa and Aborampha (1986) analyzed the levels of mass media usage, national political integration and related issues in Ghana. It was noted that mass media alone would not suffice in the collective efforts at national political integration in Ghana. The political propaganda contents of mass media in Ghana were not specifically assessed by the researchers.
Ume-Nwagbo (1986) studied the broadcasting of dramatic works in Nigerian television stations from development communication point of view. The researchers observed that Nigeria’s most successful radio and television public service campaigns used dramatic formats which had highly creative contents. The study also revealed that broadcasting was deployed at different times with varying degrees of success in promoting development projects in Nigeria. The political propaganda contents of Nigerian television stations were not analyzed by the researcher in particular.
Terrel (1986) carried out the content analysis of the Beijing Review, an official propaganda organ of the communist party of the People’s Republic of China. The researcher focused the attention on the manner in which the Communist Party of China used the Beijing Review to influences the global balance of power. The study revealed that Beijing Review was primarily used as a forum for disseminating information about internationally important events. The magazine was also an extremely valuable source of information about China’s internal affairs. The political propaganda contents of the Beijing Review were also primarily assessed by the researcher.
Green (1988) authored a book entitled “American Propaganda Abroad” and recalled the propaganda techniques adopted by America during world war, cold war, Vietnam war and gulf war. The scholar has referred to the white, black and gray propaganda techniques employed by the United States of America in order to reverse the propaganda strategies and media campaigns of enemy nations.
Nyamnjoh (1988) studied broadcasting in Francophone Africa, which served as the vehicle for the much desired exportation and propagation of the French language, and culture in Africa. It was observed that France took steps to monopolize broadcasting in all her territories even when this was detrimental to the indigenous people. The researcher has suggested that radio and television in African nations should stop crusading for French language and culture. The study was primarily restricted to the broadcasting efforts made by France in Africa rather than analysis of political propaganda of Francophone Africa.
The Wall Street Journal (1988) analysed the letters to the editor which had been associated with the process of political propaganda in America. The researchers examined the influence of letters to the editor on public opinion formation concerning political issues, trends and developments in America. The political propaganda contents were primarily analysed by the journal.
Zhou (1988) carried out the content analysis of samples of English language translations of Pravda. The researcher found five noticeable changes in the operation of the media, namely, more timely release of news, tremendous expansion of coverage, trend toward providing more fact and information, more human interest and entertainment stories and more moderately negative items. These changes were attributed to political expediency, professional pride and bottom-up pressure from the audience. The researcher did not carry out any specific content analysis of political propaganda disseminated by the Soviet media.
Peroutka (1989) conducted a cultural study of the published and distributed narrative religious literature of the Respiratory Tract Society, England. The scholar explored and documented the early use of mass media for propagandistic purposes. The scholar observed that the tracts constructed a false view of the world which was dumped wholesale on the impoverished masses. The tracts provided a much limited model of the successful propaganda campaign which bolstered the Evangelical Movement. The study was not directly associated with the political propaganda analysis.
Shulman (1990) examined the propaganda contents of the Voice of America. The researcher observed that the American radio station, namely The Voice of America worked actively with Hollywood to ensure that privately produced movies were in harmony with government aims in the war. The propaganda programmes were mainly designed to benefit the sponsor and promote American interests politically and economically. The researcher had specifically analysed the political propaganda carried out by The Voice of America.
Taylor (1990) made an adequate overview of the wartime use of propaganda in world history spanning the ancient world to the nuclear age. The scholar reported that the revolutionary changes in the communication technologies of the late twentieth century affected the ancient art of diplomacy in general and the techniques of propaganda and public persuasion in particular.
Guo (1990), studied the role of mass media as an instrument of political propaganda in contemporary China. The Chinese version for news and information dissemination and for political agitation and mobilization were critically examined by the researcher.
Weil (1991) examined the relationship between political and sexual discourses in England, between the Exclusion Crisis and the death of Queen Anne. The researcher explored in a different context how political debates raised questions about gender, and how assumptions about gender were used in political discussions.
Gergen (1991) assessed the process of diplomacy in the age of television. The scholar drew the attention of the readers on the dangers of the tele-democracy in particular. The study also examined the ways and means of abuse of television in the developed countries. The study precisely dealt with the political propaganda telecast by modern television channels. The study revealed that these channels are duly controlled by the market forces which practice the politics of opportunism in the age of globalization.
Mody (1991) studies Development Communication from the people’s point of view. The researcher observed that mass media could be useful tools of progress if they mind. The researcher has also strongly advocated media intervention for development. The study was restricted to the analysis of people’s participation in the process of message development rather than political propaganda management.
Pratkanis and Arouson (1991) authored a book entitled ‘Age of Propaganda’ and documented the history of propaganda in different stages of human history. The scholars have noticed that the ‘munitions of the mind’ had become increasingly more sophisticated with advances in psychology and communication, especially during the course of the 20th century. In particular, two world wars, cold war, Vietnam war, and Gulf war have been discussed in the context of the growth and development of political propaganda by the author.
McMohan (1991) analysed the credibility and world power with special reference to psychological dimension in post-war American diplomacy. The researcher noted that the practice of American propaganda became inextricably tied to the strategies of psychological warfare and covert action which were transformed into a catch all formula that went beyond mere political propaganda. The researcher had analyses the impact of political propaganda on American diplomacy.
Grimes (1992) made a scientific study of the impact of new communication technologies on rural masses. It was observed that there was no expansion, decentralization and localization of new communication technologies in rural and tribal areas. The researcher had also suggested that new communication technologies should be made accessible to the rural masses. The researcher had not emphasized the utility of new communication technologies from the point of view of political propaganda.
Combs and Nimmo (1993) evaluated the impact of the dictatorship of Palaver in contemporary politics on the new propaganda. The researcher also examined the propaganda techniques employed by the dictatorship which are known for manipulation, disinformation and anti-people tendencies. The study also highlighted the emerging trends in new political propaganda.
Grice (1994) analysed the UK government advertisements as instruments of political propaganda and public service. The researcher found that Labour front-benchers had targeted the rapidly rising publicity budget of John Patten.
Snyder (1995) authored a book on the Soviet-American propaganda. The scholar has stated that both Russia and America were warriors of disinformation and resorted to the worst kind of propaganda in order to win over cold war. The scholar has specifically examined the political propaganda carried out by USA and former USSR.
Donche (1995) conducted a study of the role of graphic design in the political propaganda of the twentieth century. The research paper is divided into three sections: the first section is an analysis of the psychological impact of political graphic imagery, the second part looks at particular case studies, and the last part is about the relationship between graphics and politics. There was an extensive analysis of the role of graphic design in political propaganda.
Taylor (1995) documented the history of propaganda from the ancient times to the present age. The study revealed that the Assyrian, Greek and Roman empires employed various techniques of propaganda in order to mobilize their armed forces and demoralize their enemies. The Chinese advocated various techniques to maintain fighting morale and to destroy the enemy’s will to fight it. In the nineteenth century, the German’s used psychological forces as decisive elements of modern war. In the twentieth century America and Russia emerged as formidable political forces and practiced political propaganda vigorously. The scholar has systematically studied the evolution of political propaganda all over the world.
Cisneros (1996) examined the relationship between political propaganda and repression in authoritian Argentina from 1976 to 1983 known as the “Process of National Reorganization”. The researchers explored the confluence of discourses of nationalism, history, science and medicine. The political propaganda techniques employed by the government of Argentina were specifically examined by the researcher.
Page (1996) analysed the U.S. official propaganda during the Vietnam War, 1965–1973. The study revealed that overt and covert political propaganda programmes were continued through the Vietnam War in order to sell an unpopular war to international community. The United States Information Agency presented the Vietnam War as noble defense of a free country under attack by communist insurgents. The researcher had analysed the U.S. political propaganda with special reference to Vietnam War, which saw the moral and technical defeat of America.
Jacobs (1998) evaluated the Middle East propaganda with special reference to Psychological Warfare (PW) which has little in common with Public Relations. The scholar observed that Israel is one of the worst violators of human rights in view of the way in which the Israeli government and Jewish communities throughout the world have responded to the enemy propaganda onslaught. The evaluation had clearly dealt with the political propaganda carried out by Israel.
Snow (1998) examined as to how the American culture was sold to the world by using various propaganda techniques. The researcher noted that as far back as the colonial period, influential Americans exhibited a remarkable grasp of propaganda techniques. The American propagandists employed a wide variety of techniques to arose the global public sentiment in favour of American culture. The study was restricted to the analysis of cultural propaganda rather than political propaganda in American society.
Bernhard (1999) authored a well known guidebook on U.S. television news and cold war propaganda. The scholar observed that the U.S. government allowed a “free market place of ideas” and that both government and media institutions created a climate wherein objectivity was equated directly with anti-communism. The scholar has dealt with the political propaganda telecast by U.S. television channels.
Lucas (1999) assessed the American crusade against the Soviet Union. The researcher focused the attention of readers on state-private collaboration in cold war propaganda campaigns in Unites States. The analysis had duly covered the political propaganda activities of the United States of America.
Thomson (1999) carried out a comprehensive documentation of the evolution of propaganda all over the world. The researcher has documented the various stages of the growth of political propaganda all over the world. The study reveals that the infusion of psychological considerations and propaganda tactics into the practice of diplomacy is one of the most important legacies of the cold war and foreign policy continued to be swayed by images transmitted instantly around the globe. The scholar has specifically studied the evolution of propaganda all over the world in general.
Krugler (2000) evaluated the domestic propaganda battles carried out by the American government station, namely, The Voice of America. The scholar scientifically explored the domestic political controversies surrounding the Voice of America which incorporated the propaganda tactics into the practice of diplomacy in United States of America. The scholar had analysed the political propaganda techniques employed by The Voice of America.
Mitrorich (2000) studied the American propaganda strategy to subvert the Soviet Block. The scholar had systematically explored the relationships among the psychological warfare, covert action and national security strategy in the early cold war. The researcher noted that the United States dismantled the propaganda apparatus it had constructed during world war –II and entrusted the propaganda activities to the Central Intelligence Agency. The analysis was restricted to the political propaganda in the early cold war period.
Osgood (2000) conducted a systematic study on the relationship between propaganda and diplomacy during the Eisenhower administration in America. The study revealed that Eisenhower created the psychological warfare division since it was important in the pacific theatre to convince Japanese soldiers to cease resistance. The analysis was limited to the political propaganda strategies of Eisenhower administration in America.
Smith (2000) assessed the need and importance of public diplomacy in the modern times. The scholar reported that the cold war inaugurated a paradigm shift in the practice of diplomacy over the United States of America that reflected changes in the nature of diplomatic activity worldwide. The study was restricted to the political diplomacy rather than the practice of political propaganda in American society.
Kynge (2000) examined the propaganda drive China moved against freedom of expression. The researcher observed that China imposed greater control over free expression in the media and in think tanks which brought about social unrest. The study specifically dealt with the political propaganda employed by the Chinese leadership.
Pratkanis and Arouson (2001) authored a book on propaganda. The scholars made a comprehensive analysis of the everyday use and abuse of persuasion in the modern society. The work specifically dealt with the techniques of modern political propaganda.
Santa Barbara (2001) examined the U.S. propaganda in the free world covering the total cold war period. The researcher observed that American propaganda and diplomacy operated on multiple levels throughout the cold war. The study revealed that the United States waged a war of words and of ideas that advertised the American way of life to win the cold war. The study duly covered the American propaganda techniques which were employed throughout the cold war period.
The Financial Times (2001) evaluated the political propaganda carried out by the former Iraqi President late Saddam Hussain and observed that the lack of medical equipment or supplies was caused by the negligence of the government of Iraq.
Chomsky (2001) evaluated the spectacular achievements of American propaganda vis-à-vis media control. The scholar observed that the imperialist forces effectively controlled the media and resorted to manufacturing of the consent of the people. The scholar prominently analysed the process of political propaganda carried out by the Americans.
Seibert (2002) studied the propaganda and subversion with particular attention given to those elements which are clearly subversive. The researcher found that subversive scribes had a variety of literary techniques at their disposal. Propaganda acted as a cloaking device for subversion according to the study.
Cunningham (2002) studied the role of propaganda from the point of view of reconstruction. The researcher emphasized the need and importance of constructive propaganda in the modern society. In particular, the ethics of political propaganda were chiefly examined by the researcher.
Horten (2002) assessed the cultural politics of propaganda during World War II. The researcher found that the Office of War Information (OWI) was established to present government policies to the public both at home and abroad. Regular broadcasts were introduced over the Voice of America (VOA), a government radio station in order to promote the government aims in the war. The study emphasized the role of radio as an instrument of political propaganda in America.
Hixson (2002) studied the relationship between propaganda culture and cold war. The researcher noted that the United States had utilized propaganda techniques repeatedly through its history, particularly during the period of cold war. The study revealed that the total wars of the early twentieth century led the US government to employ propaganda on a massive scale as an accessory to military operations, but the cold war institutionalized propaganda as a central component of American foreign policy. The study considerably highlighted the American political propaganda in particular.
Sproule (2002) analyzed the domestic propaganda battles carried out by the Voice of America. The researcher observed that the Voice of America purveyed propaganda through its self-serving character from the time of its inception. The researcher analysed the political propaganda carried out by the Voice of America.
Sproules (2002) assessed propaganda and its discontents with special reference to modern society. The scholar observed that review of the inter-world war dialogue about propaganda would have provided helpful additional resources for interpreting the tensions that are inherent to government sponsored propaganda. The study dealt with the political propaganda techniques employed by the Voice of America.
Balguy–Gallois (2003) authored a legal memorandum entitled Propaganda-oriented Media and International Humanitarian Law ‘which has invited global attention. The scholar observed that propaganda alone is not a sufficient motive to justify an attack against the media that broadcast it. The scholar has also strongly advocated that propaganda that incites people to commit unlawful acts of war and violence must be prohibited. This work is directly associated with political propaganda disseminated by the mass media.
Kellner (2003) made a critique of U.S. broadcasting networks with special reference to media propaganda in the war of Iraq. The scholar noted that Bush was unable to make an intelligent and objective case for a war against Iraq. Bush could only incite fear and a moralistic rhetoric. Al Jazeera and other Arab networks and some European networks talked of an invasion and an illegal US and British assault on Iraq. The US Broadcast networks, on the whole, tended to be more embedded in the Pentagon and Bush administration than the reporters in the field and print journalists. The scholar had specifically dealt with the political propaganda carried out by the US broadcasting networks.
Mitchell (2003) evaluated the propaganda techniques of council house which injured the interests of senior citizens. The scholar observed that the directors claimed absolute control in the name of liberalism and democracy by using propaganda which reflected obfuscation and coercion. The council house propaganda chiefly consisted of the planned distortion of information, which harmed gullible senior citizens. The study dealt with the political propaganda techniques employed by the council house.
Houskins (2004) authored a book entitled “Television War: From Vietnam to Iraq.” The scholar observed that both Vietnam and Iraq wars strongly reminded the American policy makers and propagandists that obvious falsehood caused irreparable harm on their credibility. The television war was indeed a wasteful and futile exercise according to the scholar. The work specifically dealt with the role of television in political propaganda.
Paul and Elder (2004) analysed the ways and means of detecting media bias and propaganda in national and world news. The scholars have observed that media were not fair and objective in their coverage of international events. They have suggested that the readers must develop critical thinking which would facilitate better human thought processes and public opinion formation. They have brought out a guide who explains how to cultivate critical thinking and thus reduce the influence of bias and propaganda on the mind. The study dealt with media propaganda rather than political propaganda in particular.
Harrison (2004) had studied various movements in the software development which are associated with modern propaganda. The researcher observed that the innovators who want to get their work accepted by others should study propaganda as the military, political parties and modern corporations use it. The researcher has called upon the policy makers and professionals in software development industry to recognize and implement the propaganda techniques in order to boost their progress. This study is related to the employment of propaganda techniques in software industry rather than political propaganda in media industry.
Dean (2004) analysed the secret presidency of George W. Bush and observed that it was worse than Watergate scandal which was a milestone in the history of investigative journalism. The scholar has effectively focused the attention of readers on the manipulative politics of George W. Bush who become the President of America. This was indeed a systematic analysis of political propaganda carried out by the Republicans under the leadership of George W. Bush.
Kidd (2004) assessed the psycho-social imagery and political propaganda in France during 1789–1945. The study revealed that the use of ‘monstrous’ to demonise opponents was a marked feature of political caricature and national propaganda during French Revolution and two World Wars. The French propaganda owed its ubiquity and polyvalence to the presence of powerful associations between the revolutionary ‘medusa’ and the guillotine of the period. The study had emphasised the political propaganda contents in France.
Zheng and Comeron (2004) studied the structural transformation of China’s propaganda from an Ellulian perspective. It is found that China’s political propaganda underwent structural transformation from depending on human organisation to extensive control and use of media technology. Sociological propaganda has significantly expanded in China as a compliment to political propaganda over the years according to the researchers. The study has primarily dealt with the political propaganda in China.
Patridge (2004) examined the status of political propaganda in the early 21st century. The scholar identified certain specific issues, namely, presidential campaign-2000, Georgia senatorial campaign, 2002, south cerolina primary campaign, 2000 and so on. The study revealed that the democratic propaganda strategists approached the political campaigns from the traditions of scholarship and law while the regulation propaganda strategists approached the political campaigns from the perspective of the market place. The scholar made a comparative analysis of modern political propaganda in U.S.
Sojo (2004) analysed the political propaganda transmitted in the public and private television channels at Venezuela with reference to civic strike of December 2002 and January 2003. The researcher carried out a content analysis of the television spots based on the theory of political propaganda. The study revealed that the political propaganda reinforced but did not change public opinions because the anti-government students tended to evaluate the state of affairs in a better way the spots of their trend. The pro-government students also exhibited the same tendency. The analysis primarily dealt to do with the political propaganda carried out by Venezuela television channels.
Melissen (2005) assessed the new public diplomacy with special reference to wielding soft power. The scholar observed that propaganda did not generally view communication with foreign publics in the context of changes in contemporary diplomacy. The scholar has also partially focused on political propaganda which has a much longer intellectual pedigree than public diplomacy.
Kosar (2005) examined Public Relations and Propaganda with respect to restrictions on executive agency activities in America. The researcher observed that law “publicity and propaganda” clauses restricted the use of funds for puffery of an agency, purely Persian communications. The study specifically focused on political propaganda activities in America.
Lee (2005) made an analysis of the propaganda war on terrorism carried out by the Unites States. The researcher pointed out that terrorism became an arduous task of policy makers and propagandists in the 21st century. American leaders vehemently condemned the terrorists who impeded universal peace, harmony and progress. The role of political propaganda in combating terrorism was emphasized by the researcher.
Griger (2005) made an in-depth study of the institutional history of the Society for National Heritage which conducted political propaganda in Iran. The researcher observed that in the 20th century, the project of Iran’s cultural heritage facilitated well. Choreographed museums, accurate indexes of historical landmarks and cultural promotion of Iran. The scholar examined the relationship between national heritage and political propaganda in Iran.
Albanese (2006) made a comparative analysis of political propaganda in America, the Soviet Union and Germany. The study revealed that modernist propaganda reflected the artistic work manufactured by politicians and bureaucrats in these countries. The researcher primarily studied the individual modernist manifestations of political propaganda carried out by these three dominant nations.
Khrushcheva (2006) examined the relationship between the media institutions and political propaganda with special reference to America in the pre and past cold war periods. The scholar identified the representation of Americanism in various media forms — printed press, television and film industries. The scholar also made a systematic evaluation of other countries that used propaganda machine to deliver their own political and ideological messages. The study was directly associated with the practice of political propaganda by prominent political rivals — the Unites States and the Soviet Union.
Pacepa (2007) carried out the content analysis of ‘Wall Street Journal’ which is a well known instrument of political propaganda in America. The study revealed that George Bush conducted the war on terror for personal gains. The study was directly associated with the process of political propaganda carried out by ‘The Wall Street Journal’.
2.3 Arabic Studies
Mohammed (1987) analysed the relationship between mass media and national development with special reference to Yemen. The researcher examined media ownership, organization, financing, objectives programming, regulations, education and training, audience research and technological development aspects. The study primarily dealt with the subject of political propaganda carried out by the mass media in The Republic of Yemen.
Attyah (1989) examined the contents of newscast programmes and political programmes broadcast by the first channel in Iraqi television by following systematic content analysis method. The researcher identified the drawbacks of news and political programmes. It was noted that the Iraqi television programmes lacked continuity, consistency and quality. The study mainly dealt with the political propaganda of the main newscast of Iraqi television.
Rushti (1991) analysed the contents of the space channels from the point of views of cultural promotion. The researcher observed that the new communication technologies have brought about several changes in communication industry. The study revealed that the Arabic culture and development processes were considerably affected by the satellite communication technologies. The foreign television channels chiefly broadcast violence and sex-centered programmes which made the Arabic audiences weak and vulnerable socially and culturally. The study focused on the cultural propaganda techniques of western media.
Aljamal (1993) assessed the media invasion of Arab countries. The study revealed that the western communication media widened the gulf between the North and South in general and promoted rank consumerism in Arab countries in particular. The western media also adversely affected the local culture, environment and security according to the study. The study focused on the social and economic propaganda techniques of western media.
Alhyti (1994) studied the impact of the space channels on Arab society. The researcher observed that the space communication and broadcasting technologies had both positive and negative impact on Arab society such as intellectual progress, cultural integration, social change, economic development, globalization, consumerism, westernization, rising expectations and so on. The researcher had called upon the policy makers, broadcasters and people not to blindly imitate the western values which weakened local interest, culture, harmony and security. The study did not deal with the political propaganda in any way.
Albakry (1994) evaluated the coverage of Arab world by the international space channels. The study revealed that the foreign space channels tried to uproot the local value system and institutionalize western concepts and practices. There was also a deliberate attempt made by the foreign electronic media to make Arab citizens subservient to western culture and models. The study dealt with western economic and political propaganda techniques primarily.
Albatreeg (1996) studied on the relationship between the international channels and Arab cultural identity. The researcher identified the imbalance between the suppliers and users of modern communication technologies and services. The industrialized nations mainly controlled the economies of the developing and under-developed nations. These tendencies adversely affected the Arab cultural identity and value system, according to the study. There was no direct reference to the political propaganda techniques employed by the international broadcasting media.
Alhadeethi (1996) analysed of the cultural and social reflections of live space television broadcasting. The study revealed that the foreign space channels were largely responsible for cultural invasion of Arab and Islamic societies. These channels also adversely affected the Arabic values, customs, traditions and interests, according to the researcher. The study primarily dealt with the cultural and social propaganda rather than political propaganda.
Nida (1996) conducted a survey on the cultural invasion of the Third World Countries including the Arab world especially by the international broadcasting channels. The researcher pointed out that international electronic media created a borderless society and tried to westernise the developing nations at the earliest opportunity. These tendencies have also affected the self-reliance, sovereignty, culture, security and other aspects of Arabic world, according to the study. The study also dealt with the political propaganda strategies adopted by the international media.
Binalshaikh and Hamdan (1996) evaluated the impact of live broadcasting on the urban Arabic audience in Egypt, Jordan, Tunisia and United Arab Emirates. The study revealed that there was considerable decrease in the duration of watching the national channels and an explicit increase in watching the Arabic and foreign television channels in the study areas. The French television channels were considered as the best and most wanted television channels by the Arab audiences. The study did not specifically deal with the political propaganda contents of international broadcasting agencies.
Khathor (1996) analyzed the impact of live television broadcasting in the Arab world with special reference to Damascus as a model. The researcher noted that a vast majority of the audience watched more than two international television channels including CNN and Turkish channels which had negative effects of watching national channels. The study did not analyse the political propaganda contents of CNN and Turkish channels.
Falhi (1998) carried out a field study of Iraqi television with a special emphasis on the political function of television. The study laid special emphasis on the personal features and professional characteristics of the broadcasters who handled political programs in Iraq television. The study revealed that the political programmes and newscasts were identified as the most preferred programmes by the audiences under study. The audiences watched the second Gulf War with utmost interest according to the study. it was found that the political propaganda techniques employed by the Iraqi television had considerable impact on the audiences. The study primarily dealt with political propaganda of Iraq television.
Ziyadah (1998) made a comparative analysis of the cultural functions of Tunisian and Sudan’s space channels. The study revealed that these two Arab channels broadcast cultural programmes which strongly withstood the challenges of globalization and media invasion. The researcher has called upon the policy makers and broadcasters to develop propaganda techniques that promoted Arabic culture against western temptations and manipulations.
Aljabri (2001) conducted the content analysis of the political news broadcast by the main newscast of Abu Dhabi Space Channel. The researcher also made a comparative analysis of political news and other news presented by the Abu Dhabi channel and other channels. The study revealed that the political news was the second most prominent programme broadcast by the Abu Dhabi channel which depended on external sources such as Arabic and foreign news agencies, television networks and communication technologies. The study primarily dealt with the political propaganda contents of Abu Dhabi Space Channel.
Alka’abi (2001) made an analytical study of newscast of Aljazeera Space Channel. The researcher also studied various kinds of news and news values with special reference to Aljazeera Space Channel’s newscast. The researcher observed that Aljazeera Space Channel did not adopt scientific media policy and standardized news values while broadcasting news to Arabic citizens in their countries or abroad. The channel also gave more importance to international news rather than Arabic news. The study did not evaluate the political propaganda of Aljazeera Space Channel prominently.
Alshamandi (2001) evaluated the propagandistic function of the political programmes of Abu Dhabi Space Channel especially from objectivity and artistic points of view. The study was primarily based on the analysis of contents of political programmes covering the period of about 1 year, i.e., January 1 — December 31, 2001. The researcher found that Abu Dhabi Space Channel broadcast political programmes on a priority basis and that the Arabic Political issues were chiefly focused by the broadcasters. The study primarily evaluated the political propaganda of Abu Dhabi Space Channel.
Alazazi (2002) analysed the propagandistic functions of the cultural programmes of Al-Shariqah Space Channel in United Arab Emirates. The study was primarily based on the analysis of contents of cultural programmes covering the period of about 3 years, i.e., 1997, 1998 and 1999. The researcher also analysed the personal features and professional characteristics of broadcasters who handled the broadcasting of cultural programs. The criteria of cultural programmes, kinds of cultural programmes and news value of cultural programmes were also covered by the researcher for the purpose of content analysis. The study revealed that the space channel under study gave prominence to cultural and artistic dimensions of political propaganda.
Alta’ee (2002) examined the political programmes of Iraqi Space Channel with an emphasis on Palestinian uprising. The study revealed that the subject of Palestinian uprising occupied the first place under the banner of political broadcasting. The researcher had suggested certain measures to improve the quantity and quality of political broadcasting.
Mohammed (2003) assessed the political function of the news and programmes of al-Shriqah Space Channel in United Arab Emirates. The researcher observed that this space channel gave high priority to the Arab issues such as Palestinian conflict with Israel, Iraq and American conflict, Lebanese issue and so on. The channel enhanced the Arabic nationalism and criticized the American imperialism in particular. The study primarily dealt with the cultural and political propaganda functions of Al-Shariqah Space Channel in particular.
Mahioub (2003) made a comparative analysis of Yemen and Egypt Space Channels with a special emphasis on treatment of Arabic issues in newscasts. The researcher found that telecasting of news concerning Arabic issues was marked by a positive attitude. The Yemeni Space Channel mainly focused the attention of the audiences on the personalities while the Egypt channel focused on political issues and events. Both the space channels primarily depended on their own news sources rather than foreign sources, according to the study. The study primarily focused the attention of researchers on political contents of newscasts rather than political propaganda.
Albahesh (2005) examined the impact of American psychological warfare on Arabs and Muslims after 11th of September 2001 events. The contents of American official statements were classified into immediate, moderate and far objectives with reference to political, military and media aspects of propaganda. The study revealed that America did not tolerate the Muslim countries which opposed American invasion and occupation of Afghanistan and Iraq countries. These actions were also critically opposed by the global community including the citizens of America. The study focused on the political propaganda techniques of America in particular.
Jabr (2005) evaluated the political propaganda programmes broadcast by Algazeera Television Channel which is very popular especially in the Arab world. The scholar focused the attention of the audience on the planning, execution and effects of the propaganda programmes which were in tune with the official policy of the Aljazeera television channel. The political propaganda contents and effects of Aljazeera television channel were chiefly examined by the researcher.
Mohsen (2006) analyzed the political propaganda contents of the Abu Dhabi television channel which is also a prominent broadcasting agency in the Arab region. The positive and negative aspects of news coverage of Iraqi political issue were chiefly examined by the researcher. The study revealed that Iraqi issue overshadowed other issues especially in the Arab world. The television channel mainly concentrated on the trends and developments that occurred in and around Baghdad instead of the political issues and developments concerning other governorates of Iraq according to the study. The study primarily dealt with the subject of political propaganda carried out by Abu Dhabi television channel in the Arab region.
Yosuf (2006) studied the relationship between media and politics. The political propaganda functions of mass media including television were primarily examined by the researcher with a special emphasis on Arab region. The study also dealt with media theories and practices which had a bearing on political propaganda practices and effects. The portrayal of Arab issues in the western media was primarily focused by the researcher. The study exposed the anti-Muslim attitude of western media in particular. The study focused on the political propaganda techniques of western media in particular.
Mohammed (2007) made a comparative analysis of the news coverage of Abu Dhabi and Aljazeera space channels with a special emphasis on political propaganda functions. The mechanisms and applications of news coverage in both the channels in respect of Islamic, Arabic and International affairs were chiefly examined by the researcher. The researcher also made an attempt to identify and analyze the geographical and political criteria for news selection, processing and broadcasting in these two Arab space channels. The political propaganda contents and effects were primarily examined by the researcher.
2.4 Indian Studies
Thakur et al., (1964) examined the developmental propaganda carried out by radio in the Indian villages. The researchers identified the role of radio as ‘gatekeepers’, ‘influentials’ ‘transmitters’, and ‘interpreters’. The study suggested that radio could be used by the development administrators and planners as a medium of propaganda in rural India.
Rao (1966) examined the functions of communication in a developing country as they emerged from the study of two villages with contrasting stages of development. The researcher advocates that communication plays a decisive role in the process of national development and the relationship between communication and development is a constant and cumulative one. The study which was based on participant observation method does not contribute significantly for the advancement of communication system at the grassroots level.
Sen et al., (1966) analysed the role of media as instruments of propaganda from the point of view of community development in India. The study also dealt with the adoption of innovations in agriculture, health and family planning, the level of development of communication facilities and village institutions, the leadership pattern in the villages and the process of modernisation in Indian villages. The study has chiefly focused the attention of researchers on the role of developmental propaganda rather than political propaganda.
Yadav (1967) analyzed the communication structure, pattern and approaches from the point of view of diffusion of innovations in Indian rural setting. The researcher had not emphasized the role of communication in political propaganda.
Raju (1967) conducted a factor analytic study of selected villages and farmers in three states of India during 1966–67. The aspects of communication pattern were: village-outside communication integration, village-within inter-personal integration, structure, role and communication participant composition. The researcher had suggested different communication strategies for development in those villages. The study which was based on factor analytic investigation method does not contribute significantly for the improvement of political propaganda at grassroots level.
The Indian Institute of Mass Communication (1967) New Delhi, India examined the health propaganda carried out by the government media. The study describes the approaches used, namely, film shows, group discussions, mobile clinics, interviews etc., and reveals that these approaches were indeed purposeful enough toward bringing about awareness and participation among target groups in the process of health management. The study also suggests a pattern for health and family planning propaganda campaigns which would fit into the rural areas.
Kishore (1968) assessed the effectiveness of radio as a medium of propaganda with special reference to dissemination of agricultural information in selected villages of community development block of Kanghawala of Delhi Territory. The study revealed that radio is effective medium in bringing about significant change in knowledge and attitude of the farmers of all socio-economic backgrounds. The researcher has studied the role of radio in disseminating agricultural information as an instrument of development propaganda.
Fliegel et.al. (1968) studied agricultural innovations in Indian villages and analyzed the process of diffusion of agricultural innovations in 108 villages in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. The researchers studied the factors that facilitate or inhibit the success of agricultural programmes in rural areas. The report specifically deals with development administration, communication, village resources, village and social structure, leadership characteristic institutional development and multivariate analysis of factors associated with agricultural development.
Sing and Shankaraiah (1969) evaluated the development propaganda strategy adopted by the developing countries with special reference to India. The researchers examined the factors that influenced the planning of communication strategy, the adoption process, sources of communication, the effectiveness of radio and television and their impact on farmers.
Sarabhai (1970) examined the relationship between television and development. It was observed that television can be utilized effectively for developmental endeavours in a developing country like India. The researcher had stated that education and development should become high priorities for Indian television. It was strongly advocated that satellite communication in general and community television in particular should become tools of community development.
Venna (1971) assessed mass media consumption in eight north Indian villages in Uttar Pradesh from the point of view of development propaganda. The researcher observed the extent to which media (newspapers, radio and film) influenced the awareness of rural people of happenings outside their society. The study has generally dealt with the role of propaganda in enhancing the awareness among the people on outside events and issues rather than local rural development projects and benefits.
Tiwari (1971) analysed TV as a tool of change and development. The researcher had also explored the possibilities of utilizing television as a tool, technology, resource and process with respect to attaining the goals of development in India. However, the researcher had not touched upon the role of TV as an instrument of political propaganda in particular.
Shankaraiah (1972) studied the differential patterns of communication including propaganda in two Indian villages which provided insight into the actual flow of information and existing differential patterns of communication. The findings of the study could be of much help to the policy makers and planners in development and propaganda fields in deciding specific communication and propaganda strategies for different areas and villages which are at different stages of development.
Kunju (1972) evaluated the factors influencing communication patterns among members of discussion groups in Kerala’. The study aimed at delineating the propaganda patterns operating among the members of farmers’ discussion groups (Charcha Mandals) and some of the factors that influenced them. The researcher has not broadened the base of investigation by including vital elements of development and propaganda strategies.
Sonoria (1974) analyzed the communication pattern in farm information development and dissemination in Madhya Pradesh. The researcher had not concentrated adequately on the communication patterns and practices with special reference to political propaganda.
Verghese (1976) former Editor of The Hindustan Times launched series of development propaganda campaigns by depicting life in a village called Chhatera, 25 miles northwest of Delhi, in Haryana State. The campaigns focussed the attention of readers on various problems of education, health, communications, sanitation, availability of fertiliser and a hundred other things. These problems were brought to the notice of the authorities concerned on a regular basis.
Chitnis (1976) studied the social implications of the satellite instructional television experiment and observed that SITE is conceived as an inter and multi-disciplinary exercise. It was suggested that SITE evaluation should be an on-going exercise rather than after-the-event activity. The researcher has called upon the authorities concerned to examine the social implications which arise from its ability to deliver television service to even remote and backward areas of a vast country such as India. The researcher had suggested that development agencies must have dedicated funds and competent persons to provide inputs for television programmes. The expert has not specifically dealt with the role of satellite communication in political propaganda.
Agrawal and et.al. (1977) analyzed the impact of SITE and found that television was perceived as the most effective and popular medium of communication especially by the adults. The researchers have suggested that television could be used as an instrument of personality development among the adults. They have also emphasized the need and importance of youth welfare programmes in television.
Gupta (1977) evaluated the role of TV in the empowerment of the oppressed class in India and observed that nothing could be effective unless the social structure itself was tinkered. He argues that exploitation takes place because of the resource position and its distribution among different groups of people in the society. He has called upon the researchers to assume the role of activists in particular.
Vyas (1978) conducted a case study on tribal development in southern Rajasthan and observed the communication gaps in the process of tribal development in particular. The researcher had also called upon the media to assume the role of catalysts of tribal development on a priority basis. The study had also dealt with the political propaganda services of communication media to some extent.
Agrawal (1978) examined the role of satellite communication in the process of rural development. The researcher had suggested certain measures for the attainment of rural development by using satellite communication as a tool of development propaganda in particular.
Banerjee (1979) studied the issues in developmental communication and observed that in our structure decision-making gets centralized in the hands of the elite even though we have a democratic structure. The researcher had called upon that demographic scene in India should be changed. It was suggested that media should play the role of an adversary in order to bring to the notice of the decision makers where and how implementation of government schemes has failed.
Paramahamsa and Hemalatha (1980) assessed the absorption of development messages by target groups in Krishna District of Andhra Pradesh. The study reveals that development propaganda which was carried out by government agencies was not upto the mark. The researchers have called upon the planners to encourage mobilisation of the rural poor for achieving the goals of rural development through proper communication and propaganda packages in the rural areas.
Agrawal and Ambekar (1980) conducted a study on inducing change through television in a Karnataka village and found that television could be used as a powerful medium of propaganda in rural areas in order to bring about attitudinal and behavioural changes among the rural people.
Jaiswal et al., (1981) evaluated development communication process in Mahbubnagar in Andhra Pradesh during 1978–79. The study also included propaganda analysis in particular. The primary objective of the study was to explore formal and informal channels of communication and propaganda in rural areas.
Vittal (1982) analysed the effectiveness of communication and propaganda with the rural poor in Andhra Pradesh. The study revealed that most of the problems of communication and propaganda were related to procedures and administration. The researchers have suggested that the IRDP should have an in-built communication and propaganda strategies in the rural areas.
Sinha (1982) examined the communication theory of modernization in two Indian villages in Bihar State and found that the social system heavily conditioned the media diet and media use by the villagers. The study reveals that mass communication can successfully play a decisive role in modernization by entering into a tripartite interaction relationship among social system, mass media and modernization. The study had also dealt with the political propaganda services of communication media to some extent.
Paramahamsa (1984) conducted a study on the propaganda techniques of the Information & Public Relations Department in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. The study reports that there was no attempt on the part of the IRDP functionaries, local non-govermnert organisations, political parties and mass media organisations except radio and documentary films from development propaganda point of view.
Sinha (1985) assessed the relationship between mass media and rural development in Bihar and found that development and socio-cultural differences impeded the process of development in the rural areas. The study was limited to the role of television in the process of rural development.
Yadava (1985) examined the communication and management of integrated rural development programme in Haryana State which also included the propaganda strategies. The study revealed that an overwhelming majority of the respondents were not exposed at all to the media and the rural development programmes lacked planned and adequate propaganda support. The researcher has limited the scope of investigation to communication and propaganda support to Integrated Rural Development Programme.
Paliwal (1987) evaluated the impediments to rural communication and propaganda in Dahana village of Ghaziabad district of Utter Pradesh. The researcher made an attempt to understand the depth of Indian rural community as a system of communication and propaganda. The study reveals that institutional communication and propaganda nurtures modem civilization with well established traditional values and modern practices.
Ambekar (1991) analysed the relationship between communication and rural development from anthropological point of view in a village called Pothnal in Raichur District of Karnataka State. The researcher had also analyzed the role of propaganda in the process of tribal development to some extent. He argued that development communication scholars have overemphasized the psychological and communication attributes and neglected the social structural characteristics and differences in rural and tribal areas.
Melkote et al., (1992) studied the communication gaps in development process especially in the rural areas of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka States. The study revealed that the rural areas were not blessed with the proper development propaganda resources and strategies. They have restricted their scope of analysis to the role of communication and propaganda in the adoption of agricultural innovations.
Prabhu (1993) assessed the role of media in rural development and observed that modern mass media have not done justice to their role as facilitators of rural development in particular. The researcher argues that mass media should change their profile, approaches and contents in order to live up to the expectation is of the people who constitute rural India and real India.
Jena (1994) examined the communication and propaganda patterns in Orissa State with reference to rural development. The study has focused its attention on media scenario, communication channels of government and non-government agencies in rural Orissa and the advantages and disadvantages of existing communication and propaganda patterns. The study revealed that the rural areas did not have adequate development propaganda resources and techniques.
Pichandy (1994) evaluated the communication and social influence with respect to the uses and effects of home video technology as an instrument of propaganda in the urban and rural areas of Tamil Nadu. The researcher has found that rural audience attached more importance to the uses of home video for information, education and entertainment in comparison with the urban audience. The study had dealt with the political propaganda services of communication media to some extent.
Joshi (1996) presented the profile of selected villages and analysed the procedures adopted for village selection with respect to Jhabua Development Communications Project. This effort led to a list of 150 villages where community TV sets were installed for the purpose of development broadcasting.
Sharma (1996) assessed the on health propaganda programmes which were broadcast in Jhabua district. It was found that there was lack of communication between health administration and villagers. Besides this, there was no coordination amongst various departments which managed health services. The researcher has suggested several measures toward improving health broadcasting in Jhabua district.
Agrawal et.al. (1997) evaluated on the social impact of SITE on adults and found that the satellite based communication programmes were not effective due to lack of local initiatives, prevalence of class difference and other external factors. The study had dealt with the political propaganda services of communication media to some extent.
Shah (1998) examined the propaganda carried out by the Jhabua development communications project in Madhya Pradesh. It was found that the infrastructural facilities in the survey villages were, on the whole, very limited. Besides this, the socio-cultural factors were also analyzed with reference to media exposure. The researcher had suggested that development-centered subjects which have a bearing on the target group should be broadcast with due respect to the local needs and aspirations of the target group.
Bhatia (2000) analyzed the organization of the social evaluation setup, SITE impact survey of adult, SITE impact survey of children, holistic studies, feedback on programmes, media utilization and other aspects. It was found that the overall knowledge of agricultural practices increases significantly more in utilization villages as compared to ‘TV only’ villages. The penetration of TV in the farmer population within a short span of one year was greater than that of radio, print media or village level worker. The study had dealt with the political propaganda services of satellite communication to some extent.
Agrawal (2000) examined the role of TV as a new medium of communication and propaganda in SITE areas. Anthropologists lived in the villages for a period of 18 months during pre-SITE, during-SITE and post-SITE periods. Seven villages were selected form seven states representing Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. Television viewing patterns, programme preference, impact of TV as a tool of propaganda were examined by the researcher. It was found that lack of facilities was an important factor in the non-utilization of the acquired knowledge.
Shah (2000) evaluated the impact of Jhabua development communications project on the basis of the recommendations of a national seminar from the point of view of tribal development propaganda. The researcher has suggested that betterment of infrastructural facilities, civic amenities, effective communications strategies, participatory communication approaches and positive programming would go a long way in making Jhabua Development Communications Project highly purposeful. The study had dealt with the political propaganda services of satellite communication media to some extent.
Parmar (2001) analyzed the development propaganda carried out by the Jhabua Development Communications Project in Madhya Pradesh. The researcher specifically analyzed the special communications programmes which were broadcast through Jhabua Development Communication Project in particular. The whole process of communication was participatory by nature and the programmes were made in simple Hindi language with an element of entertainment in order to attract the attention of the target groups. The study had dealt with the political propaganda services of satellite communication media to some extent.
Sahu (2001) studied the various communication approaches in the context of tribal development. The researcher examined the role of various communications media and recommends that communication planning, implementation and evaluation should become chief components of tribal development projects. The study had dealt with the political propaganda services of satellite communication media to some extent.
Singh et.al. (2001) evaluated the communication and propaganda strategy for tribal development in India. They have compared both modern and indigenous communication media from the point of view of tribal development propaganda. They have strongly advocated integration of modern and indigenous communication media in order to wipe out communication gaps in the process of tribal development.
Yadav et.al. (2002) examined the government welfare scheme for tribal development from propaganda point of view. They have identified the communication gaps in the process of tribal development. They have strongly found that the beneficiaries were more influenced through inter-personal channels rather than mass media. They have recommended that the involvement of opinion leaders and grassroots development functionaries would boost tribal development to a considerable extent especially at the grassroots level in tribal areas.
Gharami and Sharma (2002) assessed health propaganda services in Madhya Pradesh state. They have found that most of the Primary Health Centers did not adequately serve the tribals and suggested that there is an urgent need to educate the Kol and other tribes and to undertake intervention programmes to increase their faith and acceptance of the modern health services including family planning. The study had dealt with the political propaganda services of health department in Madhya Pradesh.
Kannan et. al. (2003) analysed the communication exposure among the tribals in lower hill of Palani, Tamil Nadu. The researchers had examined the media exposure, media access and media intervention especially among tribals. The researchers have identified poor media exposure in general and inadequate media intervention in particular from the point of view of tribal development propaganda in Tamil Nadu. The researchers have called upon the media to provide adequate communication support to tribal developmental programmes in particular.
2.5 Karnataka State Studies
Menefee and Menefee (1965) made an interesting study on the mimeographed newspaper in four villages of the erstwhile Mysore State (presently Karnataka State), popularly known as ‘Menefee experiment’. The study was designed to test the effects of a local newspaper as an instrument of development propaganda. The researchers also tested the effects of other methods of communication and propaganda such as public meetings and public radio.
Sitaram (1970) examined the effects of radio as an instrument of development propaganda in ten villages of Hassan district in Karnataka State. The researchers found out that the level of the retention of religious and cultural information was significantly higher than that of farming information. The researcher has restricted the scope of investigation to the role of radio as an instrument of development propaganda in rural environment.
Sridhar (1977) analysed the communication and propaganda patterns of personnel in extension and client system in Bangalore District of Karnataka state. The study revealed that the extension and client system was not fully equipped with propaganda resources and strategies in Karnataka state. The study had dealt with the political propaganda services of communication media.
Sundareshan (1978) conducted an experimental study on the impact of radio communication and propaganda on knowledge and adoption levels of farmers of Malaprabha command area, Karnataka state. The study reveals that there was significant increase in the knowledge of farmers due to adequate propaganda programmes and techniques at the grassroots level. The researcher has dealt with the development communication and propaganda problems adequately in Karnataka State.
Murthy (1979) studied the relative effectiveness of combinations of wall newspaper with slide show, flannelgraph and flash cards in communicating diary management practices on the basis of field experiment in Tumkur District of Karnataka State. The research study was conducted to find out the relative effectiveness of the media combinations as instruments of development propaganda.
Desai (1981) conducted an experimental study of the selective communication and propaganda media on knowledge, symbolic and use adoption of selected potato practices by farmers of Belgaum Taluk’. The study revealed that there was proportionate increase in the mean scores of the respondent’s of the experiment with reference to dependent variables. Each media combination was having significantly different effect in terms of gain in awareness, knowledge, symbolic and use adoption. The researcher has suggested the reinforcement-oriented propaganda strategy to be followed by the extension agency in rural areas.
Paramahamsa (1985) examined the nature of development propaganda carried out by the Directorate of Information and Publicity at Bangalore as well as at the district headquarters. The researcher had adopted personal observation method for identifying the flow path of development propaganda from the state capital through the District Information Centre to the people at the village level.
Ramanna (1989) analysed the influence of group meeting and group meeting with flip chart as instruments of development propaganda in Magadi taluk of Bangalore District, Karnataka state. The study reveals that the farmers who had participated in group meeting or group meeting with flip chart had developed a favourable attitude toward production and productivity in agriculture. The study had dealt with the development propaganda services of communication media in the rural areas.
Ambekar (1991) evaluated the relationship between communication and rural development from propaganda point of view in a village called Pothnal in Raichur district of Karnataka State. The researcher has conducted the study with a critical outlook of the western perspectives regarding development and communication and highlights the importance of an integrated perspective of rural development propaganda for a developing country like India.
Karibasavaraja (1992) analysed communicators, content and subscribers of ‘Krishi Vignana’, a farm journal in Karnataka with reference to farm development propaganda. The study revealed that area-specific and target group specific contents would boost agriculture progress in the state of Karnataka. The study had dealt with the development propaganda services of farm journal.
Guru (1997) conducted an evaluation of grassroots level development communication system in Karnataka state and analyzed the status, problems and prospects of grassroots level development communication system. He had also conducted factor analytic investigation into media patterns and practices with reference to rural development propaganda in Karnataka State. The researcher has also provided an ideal media mix which would promote rural development propaganda in a developing country like India.
Few researchers in the Arab countries in particular and other parts of the world in general have assessed the role of communications media including space channels as instruments of political propaganda. The major deficiency observed in their works was the lack of emphasis either on the political propaganda system or on the intervention of media for political reformation as a whole. Further, past studies did not indicate the factors contributing to the political communication management efficiency as well as the means or methods of improving the role of electronic media as instruments of political propaganda especially in The Republic of Yemen. Scientific investigations dealing exclusively with the political propaganda of Yemeni Space Channel were not carried out till date as seen through the review of literature.
2.6 Summary
The Republic of Yemen is a developing nation in Arab region. The country has accepted democracy as a way of life. Mass media are managed by the Ministry of Information with a view to facilitate free flow of information and enlist the active participation of people in the nation building process. Yemeni Space Channel has grown over the years as a powerful institution of public service in general and a source of political propaganda in particular. Adequate studies are not carried out all over the world on the role of space channels as instruments of political propaganda.
Few researchers have accessed the role of space channels in political propaganda in Arab region and other parts of the world. Prominent among them include: Davidson (1941), Doob (1954), Qualter (1962), Burton (1985), Terel (1985), Shulman (1990), Alajamal (1993), Fathi (1998), Snyder (1999), Jacobs (1999), Kruglar (2000), Asgood (2000), Aljabri (2001), Alshamandi (2001), Jaber (2005), Albanese (2006), Mohsen (2006) and Mohammed (2007).
Not even a systematic study had been conducted till recently on the political propaganda contents and effects of main newscasts of Yemeni Space Channel. Hence, the present study assumes professional significance from the point of view of political propaganda in the Republic of Yemen.