Topic: The Art of War by Sun Tzu as opposed to the ideas of Niccolò Machiavelli

The selected book for examination is “The Art of War by Sun Tzu” translated by Lionel Giles, published in 1910 by London: Luzac and Company. A comparative analysis with the ideology of Niccolò Machiavelli is also presented in the essay. Sun Tzu (I. C. 500 BCE) was a Chinese military strategist best known for a book he authored “The Art of War”. Although Sun Tzu’s existence is debated and the period in which he lived is disputed yet the masterpiece is traditionally affiliated with Sun Tzu. His work focuses on the specific strategies and qualifications that a general should possess. He demonstrates war strategies which are timeless and thus admired in all generations. The author states “The skillful leader subdues the enemy’s troops without any fighting.” (Tzu 29) This portrays his lack of fondness for war. Throughout his book, he guides specific strategies that should be adopted to gain victory before selecting the path for the war that he sees as disruptive, having long-term negative consequences. This book’s impact is not limited to warfare as it has influenced non-military activities, such as businesses and sports. The book primarily contains thirteen chapters, each dedicated to a specific aspect of warfare to provide a more holistic overview. The first half of the essay presents the book’s summary chapter-wise, followed by a brief introduction to Niccolò Machiavelli’s ideas. The second half is an opinion based subjective analysis and juxtaposition of both books. Discussion is carried out on positive and negative aspects of their ideology. This is continued with comparison to the modern world examples and concluded at the merit of Sun Tzu’s work. The final part contains personal reflection and a judgement that Sun Tzu’s work stands out and is an adequate guide. In contrast, Machiavelli’s work is relatively flawed and lacks relevance to modern world problems.

​“Laying Plans” as can be inferred from the title talks about preparation for war. Sun Tzu in the at the very start shares his dislike for war and advises generals to analyze the probability of victory impartially critically. This is the first chapter, and Sun Tzu uses the literary device known as foreshadowing to give an overview of the concepts upon which he later builds his strategic methodology for warfare. In the next chapter titled “Waging War”, significance to the efficient use of workforce and finance is given as they are finite; thus, he advises against these resources’ irresponsible utilization. “Attack by Stratagem” is a cost-benefit analysis which should be conducted before waging war and it also discusses direct war strategies. Sun Tzu states a city kept intact while the residents united is more valuable than a city physically ruined. He tries to establish that the city’s value should be kept in grasp to extract useful resources while politically dividing people to establish power. Six strategies are stated “It is the rule in war, if our forces are ten to the enemy’s one, to surround him; if five to one, to attack him; if twice as numerous, to divide our enemy into two.” (Tzu 30) “If equally matched, we can offer battle; if slightly inferior in numbers, we can avoid the enemy; if quite unequal in every way, we can flee from him.” (Tzu 30) He believes that the army should be united while the general must base his judgment upon his assessment without any political pressure and be ready for any unprecedented challenges. Significance of preparation over manpower is repeated thoroughly as stated “If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the results of a hundred battles. If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat. If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will succumb in every battle.” (Tzu 32)

“Tactical dispositions” gives guidelines about when to advance to battle. Tactically he states attacking makes you vulnerable while defending ensures invulnerability. Moreover, a skilful general in his vision is the person who avoids warfare and tests other methods to gain victory rather than battle. “Use of energy” is a guideline for the management of a massive army. The Push and Pull events are focused, pull the enemy is to bait them, increasing the probability of engulfing them. In contrast, a push tactic should be used when the weakening point is identified and can help collapse the enemy, yet it is risky. Sun Tzu prioritizes the ability to effectively use an army over the perceived manpower available at hand. “Weak and Strong points” discusses actions which strengthen and weaken armed forces. The advice given is to arrive first and rest, which helps boost energy and strength while aiming to force the opponent in weakness. Sun Tzu treasures secrecy which helps ensure the upper hand over the opponent if their points of weaknesses are targeted accurately.

“Maneuvering” discusses the difference between pushing your force to gain an advantage in pushing them to fall. Sun Tzu highlights the importance of the army obeying your general; otherwise, it could self-destruct and create chaos. He states that the sharpest of soldiers need the least attention while the mentally weak and homesick soldiers need the motivation instilled by the general. Moreover, he advises the general to find a weakness in the army’s structure and soldiers prior to arrival to ensure that the opponent does not exploit these weaknesses. “Variation of tactics” is based on the differing tactics a general may adapt according to situations upfront as stated “There are roads which must not be followed, armies which must not be attacked, towns which must not be besieged.” (Tzu 50) Furthermore, Sun Tzu discusses five common traits which result in the downfall of general, as stated: “Recklessness, which leads to destruction; cowardice, which leads to capture; a hasty temper, which can be provoked by insults; a delicacy of honour which is sensitive to shame; over-solicitude for his men, which exposes him to worry and trouble” (Tzu 52) “Army on the march” discusses arrival to battlefield and positioning. Sun Tzu talks about various tactics that can help waste the opponent’s energy and favourable positioning. Moreover, the opponent’s movement is discussed; high dust means horses are approaching while low dust indicates troops’ movement.

“Classification of terrain” discusses the selection of terrain and benefits of fighting on it. The author states “We may distinguish six kinds of terrain, to wit: (1) Accessible ground; (2) entangling ground; (3) temporizing ground; (4) narrow passes; (5) precipitous heights; (6) positions at a great distance from the enemy.” (Tzu 61) Then certain internal threats are outlined “An army is exposed to six several calamities, not arising from natural causes, but from faults for which the general is responsible. These are: (1) Flight; (2) insubordination; (3) collapse; (4) ruin; (5) disorganization; (6) rout.” (Tzu 63) This is followed by key of success and important lesson which signifies the importance of the general as he should be the decision-maker of when to fight and when not to regardless of what the ruler states. “Nine Situations” discusses the following grounds: Dispersive, Facile, Contentious, Open, Intersecting, Heavy, Intractable, Enclosed and Desperate. “Attack by fire” lays out five ways to use fire: burning the enemy, destruction of supplies, weapon, ammo and communication. He also advises adapting when fire outbreaks, water use as a weapon and when the fire reaches peak than attack should be initiated. The last chapter is titled “Use of Spies”, five types are discussed: Local, Internal, Double, Doomed and Live spies. Furthermore, Sun Tzu highlights the importance of spies categorizing them like the most crucial soldiers as their wisdom leads to bloodless victories and thus, they should be highest-paid.

Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence on 3rd May 1469. From a very young age, he participated with the utmost passion for city affairs. Resultantly, by the age of 29, was made the second chancellor of the Florentine republic. The discussion of Machiavelli will be based on the similarities and differences with Sun Tzu regarding war strategy. Machiavelli’s work reflects his pessimistic view of human nature as he identifies everyone as a potential enemy. Thus, his advice is an aggressive one where he wishes to see the civic rulers adopting policies similar to an army’s general. Also, Machiavelli’s ideology to politics is military influenced as he does not distinguish between a general of the army and the ruler/politician. Machiavelli’s version of “The Art of War” was published in 1520 and it is the sole political work published during his lifetime. The book was divided into seven parts along with a preface. The style of writing used by Machiavelli is an ancient Socratic dialogue. Basically, it is a discussion among two characters Cosimo Rucellai and Fabrizio Colonna along with a silent version of Machiavelli himself set in Cosimo’s garden. Cosimo and his fellow mates question Fabrizio, who is presented as a military commander, whereas Fabrizio discusses his strategic military tactics and sheds light on his army vision. Fabrizio advocates for a Roman Legion of the Republic as at that particular period he finds the model perfect to the Renaissance Florence.

Machiavelli’s advice to military commanders is to be adaptive according to particular situations. He infers particular historical battles to build a linkage between his ideology and past events to reinforce his argument’s credibility. Machiavelli’s overall thought process can be interpreted from his books such as The Art of War and The Prince fundamentally conflict with Sun Tzu, although there are minor similarities. The importance of war was significant in the eyes of both philosophers as Sun Tzu states “The art of war is of vital importance to the State.” (Tzu 22) “It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account be neglected.” (Tzu 22) However, the conflicting views come into sight when discussing human nature and the fundamentals of war. Sun Tzu advises reliance on lesser violent activates to gain victory as stated, “It is more important to out-think your enemy than to outfight him”. (Karasuhoshi) Moreover, he states “Hence to fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy’s resistance without fighting”. (Tzu 28) This proves that he prefers alternatives to warfare to achieve victory. Whereas Machiavelli states “Even to avoid a war, would not let them come to a head, for they knew that was is not to be avoided, but only to be put off to the advantage of others.” (Machiavelli 33) Throughout his writings, Machiavelli seems to be pumped about war and taking the first step, while Sun Tzu prefers the use of diplomacy and strategy over emotions and physical power.

Human nature for Machiavelli seems to be very selfish as he states “God and nature have thrown all human fortunes into the midst of mankind; and they are thus attainable rather by rapine than by industry, by wicked actions rather than by good. Hence it is that men feed upon each other, and those who cannot defend themselves must be worried.” (Machiavelli) As he held the belief of humans’ selfish nature, his opinions are framed in a way that presents a correlation between the selfish trait of humans and the inevitable conflicts that arise due to temptation to dominate each other. His writings also show that humans are incredibly greedy creatures that impair their vision as their greed has no boundaries. Moreover, he believed the war was ensnaring with politics. On the other hand, Sun Tzu agreed with Machiavelli’s opinion about relation between war and politics, yet his opinion about politics being warfare was different as he believed that politics was indeed a violent version of warfare. In addition, his opinion about human nature also differed with Machiavelli as he believed that humans are not naturally selfish, yet this is worldly created phenomena.

In his writing, Machiavelli mentions “Psychology of war” and his psychology differs from Sun Tzu. As mentioned earlier, Machiavelli sees humans as greedy power-hungry creatures which justifies his take on war psychology. However, as the fundamental driving force for both philosophers is different, therefore they have different beliefs in this perspective. Machiavelli talks about monetary rewards, power and religion as one of the driving forces that would result in a highly motivated army based on his belief about human nature. Religion has been given higher significance which in my opinion seems contradictory as love for religion or nation is a selfless act, yet Machiavelli claims humans are selfish and they only act based on their own needs and wants. Role of appearance and necessity has also been discussed, which seems logical as a commander who is upright would be a role model for his army. As for necessity, we can expect higher motivation.

On the contrary, Sun Tzu discusses psychology in the absolute sense, which is not bordered to soldiers. He discusses the psychology of the opponent and the commander and its role during a war. In addition, contrary to Machiavelli, Sun Tzu gives absolutely no weightage to religion as a motivating factor. Yet the motivating factor of “appearance” is similar in both their works as Sun Tzu states “It is the business of a general to be quiet and ensure secrecy; upright and just, and thus maintain order. He should be able to mystify his officers and men by false reports and appearances, and thus keep them in total ignorance.” (Tzu 73) Sun Tzu also discusses the commander’s character, which should contain love and affection for his soldiers, which would motivate them to a certain extent as one of the commander’s downfalls outlined is excessive compassion towards soldiers. Therefore, he emphasizes on balance between duty and love as he states, “Regard your soldiers as your children, and they will follow you into the deepest valleys; look upon them as your beloved sons, and they will stand by you even unto death.” (Tzu 64) “If, however, you are indulgent, but unable to enforce your commands; and incapable, moreover, of quelling disorder: then your soldiers must be likened to spoilt children; they are useless for any practical purpose.” (Tzu 65) No doubt we can infer from both philosophers’ writings that did understand the role of soldiers’ motivation during battle. As Sun Tzu mentioned in chapter eleven, titled “Nine Situations,” there is a situation called “Desperate ground” which is also known as the death ground. In case there is a situation during a war where it is a do or die situation, will the soldiers be willing to give their all to aspire for victory? This primarily depends on the soldiers’ motivation; thus, Machiavelli and Sun Tzu highlight this particular concept.

In addition, the concept of “necessity” is mentioned by both philosophers, yet its interpretation can be made in different ways. Machiavelli highlights necessity as a motivating factor for soldiers if soldiers find them in one of the situations noted as “Desperate ground” by Sun Tzu. However, in Sun Tzu’s eyes, war should be carried out if necessary, to avoid going into a situation where it becomes a motivating factor for the soldiers. At this point, the difference between Machiavelli’s and Sun Tzu’s psychology of war can be understood.

The concept of war practically is something where Machiavelli and Sun Tzu both are somewhat in agreement. Sun Tzu, throughout his book, focuses on calculations prior to the physical war. His perception of war is more of a mental battle than physical as he, on numerous occasions, discusses the lack of importance manpower has. The gamechanger is the implementation of tactics as he states, “Thus it is that in war the victorious strategist only seek battle after the victory has been won, whereas he who is destined to defeat first fights and afterwards looks for victory”. (Tzu 34) At another instance, he gives a similar statement “The general who loses makes but few calculations beforehand. Thus, do many calculations lead to victory, and few calculations to defeat: how much more no calculation at all! It is by attention to this point that I can foresee who is likely to win or lose.” (Tzu 25) Sun Tzu’s belief was based on the commander’s preparation before the battle and level of possible factors he anticipated prior to battle as he states, “know the enemy and know your yourself.” (Tzu 32) Thus, the very first chapter “Laying Plans” was dedicated to preparation. Similar to Machiavelli’s belief in this particular domain, Sun Tzu discussed numerous determinative factors which assist in drafting the possible outcomes of a battle as he states, “The art of war, then, is governed by five constant factors, to be taken into account in one’s deliberations, when seeking to determine the conditions obtaining in the field. These are: (1) The Moral Law; (2) Heaven; (3) Earth; (4) The Commander; (5) Method and discipline.” (Tzu 23) Machiavelli also focused on quick actions and decision making similar to Sun Tzu. Sun Tzu focused on quicker actions as it helped reduce the probability of the violence which can occur through the use of “dirty tricks” and this concept goes hand in hand with Machiavelli. The possible actions are also similar such as using spies or assassinating a prominent general. Sun Tzu in this regard states “Rapidity is the essence of war: take advantage of the enemy’s unreadiness; make your way by unexpected routes, and attack unguarded spots.” (Tzu 69) “Let your rapidity be that of the wind, your compactness that of the forest” (Tzu 46) This presents an essential principle of war which seems wicked yet can bear the results as speed leads to unanticipated damage to the opponent. While the reference to the forest is kind of a metaphor as it represents a compact and discreet movement to remain far from surprise attacks.

Machiavelli at some other instances also makes arguments which are quite similar to the ideology which Sun Tzu presents.

As Niccolò Machiavelli said:

“The proper way to conduct a war is to carry it to the enemy; keep the initiative; maintain exclusive decision-making power; do not try to buy friends; do not remain neutral or passive when danger threatens, however remotely; always present your side as peace-loving and leave your opponent every opportunity to retreat or surrender; use subversive agents inside the other society to pave the way; govern acquired territories through local intermediaries; do not risk total victory or defeat with less than all your forces; be prepared to adapt to the times – to retreat if necessary to await another day.” (Machiavelli)

Sun Tzu, at numerous occasions, emphasizes on secrecy as he holds spies, the key to success. In contrast, he also cautions the measure of risk a person should take to ensure a balanced probability for victory. Another feature which unites Machiavelli and Sun Tzu is the admiration of discipline. Machiavelli states “Discipline in war counts more than fury.” (Machiavelli’s 27 Rules of War) While Sun Tzu makes a similar statement in the form of a question to assess the forecast for victory or defeat “Which of the two generals has most ability?” (Tzu 23) “On which side is discipline most rigorously enforced?” (Tzu 24) These questions assist in the analysis of a general’s ability. Another interesting advice by Sun Tzu is the focus on the ability to adapt consistently pertaining to the situation present as stated “Do not repeat the tactics which have gained you one victory, but let your methods be regulated by the infinite variety of circumstances.” (Tzu 43)

Both books’ material helps increase the wisdom for every person where he/she is in a commanding position for daily lives. Related to my personal life, Machiavelli’s point in his writings about human nature is something that I can relate to. The current era of capitalism proves Machiavelli was correct about human nature is greedy and selfish, although in my opinion, the extent to which Machiavelli discusses this is something I would disagree upon. Human nature is greedy and power-hungry, yet it is not naturally inherited; instead, it is created within us through our schooling, experiences and life in general. Moreover, the point made by both philosophers about the use of “dirty tricks” to gain victory is something I see in today’s politics quite regularly such as the opposition leaking scandals, politicians in power misusing their power to crush their opponents and what not. Yet as discussed politics is war and to gain success in war, the extent of actions a person needs to take should hold no boundaries as stated by Machiavelli. If solely the purpose is a success, and no external factors are to be regarded then, in my opinion, it is not wrong to state that the ideology of Machiavelli is indeed practical. As for emotions the piece of work by Sun Tzu is beautifully crafted art of words which enlightens the readers about strategies and specific tactics which made it difficult for me to imagine that it was written in the 5th century BC. The book helps appraise readers about how life is war and how war tactics can be implemented in daily life. Furthermore, the focus on detail is impressive as it enlightens the reader about the entire sphere of war from the first step to the last. Each possible anticipated condition and event is outlined. At the same time, particular terrains and their strategies are scientifically discussed, which proves the talented ability of Sun Tzu to pen down thoughts created in his mind. This not only elevates his status as a great strategist; instead, it depicts his skill of writing as the book is coherent, precise and uses literary devices.

The concept mentioned by Sun Tzu which discusses that the war is won before it is fought is something that has inspired me and increased my interest to study about war strategies as it is such a wholesome depiction of tactical wars and can help relate to stories of deception which I see in the modern world as well. The book did not change my perspective as I happen to agree with the concepts mentioned yet it has undoubtedly increased my understanding of world events and how I perceive specific political actions and events conducted by superpowers such as the USA. For example, if I analyze the war on terror initiated by Americans for generations my perception was based on a one-sided sphere that the Americans have ulterior motives behind these actions, which is all a power struggle. However, after reading the book, my perception remains the same. However, if I view the events from an American commander’s perspective, these actions seem to be justified even if they are not ethical and humane. For an American military commander or statesman isn’t success gaining power? Isn’t it to rule the world? Isn’t it to gain monetary benefits even at the cost of innocent lives? In the end, Machiavelli did understand human nature as selfish and are not today’s events proving his thought of leaders correctly? In my opinion and I am basing my view only for the top leadership not the beliefs of the general public, the actions taken by them are justified as the type of warfare has changed with the passage of time and fall of monarchies, yet human nature is the same, and now leaders have adopted tactical battles which are fought mentally rather than physically.

Art of War by Sun Tzu is tactically organized, which ensures the work’s impact does not reduce, and the essential principles are not lost among the masses of text. Wide range of strategies and essential lessons are arranged in a numbered format, which reduces the reader’s possibility of skipping the points. The book is divided into thirteen chapters, and each chapter discusses a particular facet of war that makes it easier for the reader to look for certain things. Moreover, the division is done discreetly as Sun Tzu’s gives more weight to the war preparations than the war itself, and the first chapter is dedicated to this aspect which is read at first glance. Whereas the conclusion discusses the most critical factor for success in war: spies; thus, Sun Tzu has assured that the readers get the essence of his ideology. However, his approach on several occasions is very deterministic as he emphasizes on calculation a lot. The probability of war can only be calculated when both sides are equal and external factors are not considered. War is a chaotic event where unanticipated events occur all the time; thus, the validity of calculations is minimal. Secondly, the weightage given to deception can also be challenged as the web of deception can sometimes tangle the commander himself. Complications sometimes backfire Sun Tzu yet does not present a balanced argument as he gives no weightage to the unforeseen adverse impact deception can have. Furthermore, reliance on spies is too much while spies can sometimes be bribed and can lead to utmost destruction. Sometimes, the gained information can be inaccurate, planted by the opponent or misinterpreted by the commander. However, Sun Tzu sheds no light upon this; instead, he presents perfect imagery of his tactics that seem idealistic.

Lastly, in an absolute sense, I admire Sun Tzu’s writing and find it a more profound book on war strategies compared to a limited material I have studied yet, which includes the writings by Niccolò Machiavelli. Although Machiavelli indeed relates to Sun Tzu, but his overall approach seems outdated, extreme, pessimistic and griped by the claw of impulsive decision-making. As for Sun Tzu, his neutrality, formal tone and straightforward numbered points can easily be interpreted by both a layman and a commander. The books valuable and problematic features have been outlined in the essay above and weighing both sides and in comparison, to Machiavelli, it is concluded that Sun Tzu’s book’s usefulness exceeds the visible problems present and is thus a brilliant guide.

Work Cited

Machiavelli, Niccolò. “A Quote by Niccolò Machiavelli.” Goodreads, Goodreads, www.goodreads.com/quotes/526768-if-you-only-notice-human-proceedings-you-may-observe-that.

Machiavelli, Niccolò. “The Art of War.” One More Library, onemorelibrary.com/index.php/en/books/social-sciences/book/military-science-201/the-art-of-war-239.

Machiavelli, Nicolo. The Prince. planetpdf.com/planetpdf/pdfs/free_ebooks/The_Prince_T.pdf.

Karasuhoshi. “Principles of Sun Tzu – The Art of War.” Karasu, 5 Apr. 2014, karasukuroihoshi.wordpress.com/2014/04/05/principles-of-sun-tzu-the-art-of-war/.

Tzu, Sun. The Art of War. Translated by Lionel Giles, May 1994, www.utoledo.edu/rotc/pdfs/the_art_of_war.pdf.

“Machiavelli’s 27 Rules of War.” War on the Rocks, 10 Mar. 2015, warontherocks.com/2014/08/machiavellis-27-rules-of-war/.