Stoicism
Lost in Translation: Understanding Stoicism Using Greek Terms
Eudaimonia, arete, and prohairesis.
Stoicism is having a moment right now. Several factors contribute to this “Stoic boom,” for starters, many people are seeking ways to enhance their lives and take care of their mental well-being, especially as they navigate the turbulence of modern society. Additionally, the practical ideas of Stoicism are being disseminated more widely thanks to the influence of social media. All in all, these trends seem to be having a positive impact, and I’m personally glad to see them gaining traction.
Unfortunately, there is a growing group of ardent “Stoics” who feel that the philosophy is being hijacked by self-help content creators who promote quick fixes and life improvement “hacks” for their followers. I put the term “Stoics” in quotes here because this kind of gatekeeping is fundamentally opposed to the cosmopolitanism that is central to Stoicism.
While it’s true that there are many misconceptions about Stoicism being pushed on social media, this is inevitable due to the philosophy’s increasing popularity. In fact, I think it’s perfectly acceptable for people to create content and label it as Stoicism, regardless of how theoretically accurate it is, as long as it’s beneficial to others. The tenets of Stoic philosophy can help many people live a more fulfilling life, and there’s no harm in sharing these ideas on social media, even if they aren’t completely aligned with Stoic theory. If you discover something helpful on a “Stoic” social media account, I encourage you to practice it and share it with others.
With that being said, I would like to try and provide some clarity on a few Stoic concepts and address where some of these misunderstandings might stem from.
A significant amount of confusion in Stoicism arises from concepts being lost in translation, hence the title of this post. The ancient Stoic philosophers lived over two thousand years ago, and their way of life, thinking, and writing can be difficult to relate to even without a language barrier.
When modern authors translate their works or ideas from Greek or Latin to English, they frequently prioritize literal translations (for instance, philosophy — lover of wisdom; from philo- meaning “love” and -sophos, or “wisdom.”), or they try to find a single word that best captures the original meaning (for example, arete, meaning virtue). This approach can leave out a significant amount of holistic meaning and can result in severe misunderstandings.
In certain instances, using the original terms, assuming they are distinctly defined, can make the philosophy more accessible and practically applicable in daily life. In this post, I will concentrate on defining three concepts where retaining the Greek terms will help you better understand Stoicism: Eudaimonia, arete, and prohairesis.
Eudaimonia (eu-day-mo-nia)
The concept of eudaimonia was a fundamental aspect of ancient Greek philosophy, and it remains a vital idea in Stoicism today. Eudaimonia is a Greek term that translates literally to “having a good soul,” with “eu” meaning good or well, and “daimon” meaning soul or spirit. Nevertheless, the concept is far more intricate than its literal translation suggests. While eudaimonia is frequently translated as “happiness” or “human flourishing,” these explanations fail to convey the depth and complexity of the term.
Eudaimonia was considered the ultimate goal of human life by ancient philosophers. The “presocratics,” who were among the earliest philosophers, believed that to attain eudaimonia, one had to live in accordance with nature and the logos (another Greek word that is difficult to translate, but in this context, it means “rational order”) of the universe. This involved living in harmony with humans and other species while accepting one’s fate.
Aristotle later elaborated on this passive definition of eudaimonia by incorporating an active element into the concept. According to Aristotle, eudaimonia is achieved by striving for arete, which is commonly translated as virtue or moral excellence (more on this later), while living in harmony with nature.
Although different philosophical schools had slightly different views on what it meant to live a eudaimonic life, they all shared a common theme. The central idea was to live in harmony with the universe and pursue excellence through virtuous action or arete. Eudaimonia was not considered a static state of being, but rather a lifelong pursuit that demanded constant effort and attention.
Eudaimonia is a concept that transcends cultural boundaries, with various religious and philosophical traditions embracing it around the world. For instance, Christianity emphasizes living in accordance with its values to achieve “eternal life.” In the Gospel of Matthew (book 5), Jesus laid out teachings known as the “beatitudes,” which outline how to live a eudaimonic life by embodying Christian values.
Similarly, in Islam, the idea of “falah,” which means success or prosperity, is achieved through living a virtuous life following the teachings of Islam. In Judaism, the concept of eudaimonia is often expressed through the idea of “shalom,” which means peace, completeness, and well-being.
In Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, eudaimonia is expressed through the ideas of “dharma,” “nirvana,” and “ren,” respectively.
Overall, the concept of eudaimonia reflects a universal human desire for a fulfilling life, which different cultures express in various ways. Despite the differences in expression, the underlying goal of these traditions is to help individuals achieve a life of meaning, purpose, and fulfillment. By understanding the different expressions of eudaimonia across cultures, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the universality of this concept and its enduring relevance today.
The pursuit of eudaimonia is not only a philosophical concept but also a deeply personal journey. It’s about striving to be the best version of ourselves, to achieve excellence in our own unique way.
In today’s world, psychologists have even given it a name in an attempt to measure eudaimonia: subjective well-being. They have found that those who focus on living a life based on a set of values and are driven by a purpose have higher subjective well-being. So whether you’re a Stoic, a Christian, or a follower of any other philosophy of life, the pursuit of eudaimonia is a fundamental part of our human experience.
Eudaimonia:
the ultimate goal of human life, the state of human flourishing in which your thoughts, actions, and relationships align with your philosophy of life.
Now, how do we achieve eudaimonia? Using my definition from above, you first have to understand what your philosophy of life is all about. Then it’s easy. For the Stoics, to achieve eudaimonia you had to live life in pursuit of arete.
Arete (air-uh-tay)
If eudaimonia is the goal of life, then arete can be thought of as the traits or skills we need to achieve that goal. Imagine yourself on a ship, sailing toward the destination of Eudaimonia. To get there successfully, you’ll need to rely on your skills as a sailor. You’ll need to know how to read a map and use a compass to navigate. You’ll also need to know how to steer and sail the ship, understand how to utilize the wind and avoid storms. In philosophy, a sailor who excelled at all of these things would have arete.
The word “arete” is derived from the Greek word “aristos,” meaning “best” or “excellent.” In ancient Greek culture, arete was a concept that not only encompassed physical prowess and skill but also moral excellence and virtue. It was used to describe the qualities that made a person “excellent” in their field, whether that be sports, politics, medicine, or philosophy.
Too often in modern philosophy arete is translated simply as “virtue” or “moral excellence.” However, this doesn’t fully capture the original Greek idea encompassing excellence in all aspects of life, including physical skills and intellectual pursuits.
Arete is not just about being a good person but also about striving for excellence and achieving one’s full potential in all areas of life. It is a holistic concept that recognizes the interconnectedness of various areas of human endeavor.
In Stoicism, moral excellence is achieved through the cardinal virtues of wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance, which are the key to living a good and fulfilling life.
The first of these virtues is wisdom, which involves understanding what is “good” for oneself and for society. It is the foundation of the other virtues and necessary for making rational decisions and living in harmony with the universe.
“Wisdom is the knowledge of what is good, what is bad, and what is neither good nor bad.” — Musonius Rufus
The second virtue is courage, which involves the willingness to face fear and adversity in pursuit of what is “good” or right and to stand up for one’s principles and values, even in the face of opposition.
“Courage is not simply the absence of fear, but rather the assessment that something else is more important than fear.” — Franklin D. Roosevelt
The third virtue is temperance, which involves exercising self-control and moderation in one’s desires and passions and living in harmony with nature.
“Ask yourself at every moment, ‘Is this necessary?’ But eliminate unnecessary assumptions as well. To eliminate the unnecessary actions that follow.” — Marcus Aurelius
Finally, the fourth virtue is justice, which involves treating others fairly and equitably and giving each person their due based on natural law and the social contract amongst all living things. Justice is the foundation of a just society and a harmonious human community.
“[Justice] is a virtue which is concerned with giving to each man his due. It is the most significant of virtues; it is the bond which holds communities and cities together. It is the principle which distributes to every man his rights; it assigns to every man his due. Of this virtue the other virtues are, as it were, partakers; for justice is the foundation of a community of men who, united by law, will and consent, share in the same interests.” — Cicero
Together, these four virtues form the backbone of Stoic philosophy and philanthropy and provide a framework for living a virtuous life. While each virtue is important on its own, they must work together in balance. For example, courage without wisdom and justice can lead to reckless behavior, while temperance without courage can lead to inaction. It is through the practical application of these virtues in everyday life that we can demonstrate arete.
Again arete is about more than just perfecting these virtues. Stoic philosophy emphasizes the importance of being both virtuous and pragmatic. This involves finding a balance between moral integrity and practical considerations, and recognizing that being too rigid in our virtues can lead to ineffectiveness. For example, if you are determined to never tell a lie, what happens when you find yourself in a situation where telling the truth will lead to harming others?
The Stoics believed that the concept of cosmopolitanism plays a crucial role in balancing pragmatism and virtue. By recognizing our interconnectedness and working towards creating a just and equitable society, we can ensure that our actions are both pragmatic and virtuous, promoting the common good while maintaining our commitment to moral principles.
Ultimately, arete is about striving for excellence and achieving our full potential, while also recognizing the realities of the world around us. It is about finding the balance between perfection and practicality and adapting to the circumstances we find ourselves in while staying committed to our values and virtues.
Arete:
the highest expression of moral and practical excellence that you can achieve through personal and prosocial behaviors.
Now we understand the importance of arete in achieving eudaimonia. But how do we ensure we are pursuing arete? The answer to this is, in my opinion, the most important and most misunderstood concept in Stoic philosophy. Prohairesis.
Prohairesis (pro-high-reh-sis)
To return to the sailing metaphor from above, a sailor uses their prohairesis to get their ship to Eudaimonia. They do not simply react to the winds and the waves, they actively consider the best course of action based on their knowledge and skill (arete) and their understanding of the situation.
Just as a skilled sailor must assess the conditions, consider the options, and make strategic choices to reach their destination, a person uses prohairesis to reason and make thoughtful, intentional decisions in pursuit of eudaimonia. They must weigh the costs and benefits of different actions, anticipate obstacles and challenges, and make choices that align with their values and goals.
The word comes from the ancient Greek stems “pro-” meaning “before,” and “hairesis” meaning “choice” or “selection.” The literal translation of prohairesis can be understood as the power to choose before taking an action. This idea is the core idea behind Stoicism.
According to Stoic philosophy, humans possess this faculty of prohairesis as a result of our rational nature. Unlike other animals, we have the ability to think, reason, and make choices based on our understanding of the world around us. We can perceive external events and make rational judgments about our impressions to determine how accurate they are. This means that we have the power to choose how we respond to events, rather than being driven purely by instinct or emotion.
Unlike eudaimonia and arete, the literal translations for prohairesis provide a good understanding. It is typically translated as “reasoned choice,” “volition,” or “will,” which may be a simplified definition but it is surprisingly accurate. The Stoics believed that prohairesis is the faculty that allows us to use our impressions to make judgments about how to think or act and to choose to think and act according to our philosophy.
Unfortunately, the words “choice” and “will” along with the idea of prohairesis are typically explained through a Stoic concept often referred to as “the dichotomy of control.” Which in a way is an overcomplication of the concept of prohairesis. This often causes a massive amount of misunderstanding about the Stoics.
The “dichotomy of control” is the idea that some things in life are within our control, while others are not. The problem is that the word “control” is not quite right here. A more accurate translation would be “complete” or “total” control.
When we use the word control alone we actually get three possible outcomes instead of two. There are things that we completely control, things we partially control, and things we don’t control. William Irvine calls this the “trichotomy of control” in his book How to Live a Good Life. He uses an example of a tennis match. We completely control our actions during the match, and we partially control the outcome by showing up prepared to play, well-rested and hydrated, and understanding the rules, but we don’t at all control how the other person plays or any external factors like the weather and the calls of the referee.
I don’t think this “trichotomy” is what the Stoics had in mind when they were talking about prohairesis. The quote that drove this point home for me is from Epictetus, my favorite Stoic philosopher, and is actually where the dichotomy of control is derived. In it, he specifically mentions that we do not have control over our bodies.
What? I definitely have control over my body! This guy must be crazy.
This quote is the very first thing in Epictetus’ Handbook, which should highlight how important of a concept this was to the Stoics, see if you can spot where the misunderstandings arise.
“Some things are within our control, while others are not. Within our control are opinion, motivation, desire, aversion, and in a word, whatever is of our own doing; not within our control are our body, our property, reputation, office, and, in a word, whatever is not our own doing.” — Epictetus, Handbook 1.1
You can see clearly that “control,” at least in a modern sense, is not quite good enough here.
Instead, I like Donald Robertson’s approach. Let's replace the word control with the phrase “up to us.” There are some things that are “up to us” and some things that are not “up to us.” Simple and effective.
According to the Stoics, we should focus our attention and efforts on the things that are “up to us,” such as our thoughts, attitudes, and actions, and we should accept with equanimity anything that is not “up to us” like external events, other’s opinions, and natural phenomena.
To make it even simpler, the Stoics believed that there is only ONE thing that we fully “control” or that is fully “up to us.” And that is our prohairesis.
“We should pursue nothing external, and nothing that is not our own, but rather, pursue without reservation such things as lie within the sphere of choice.” — Epictetus, Discourses 4.12.15
Yes, Epictetus’ list includes more than one thing, but if you look closely everything on that list is controlled by our choices. My opinions are formed by what I rationally choose to believe or disbelieve. Similarly, my motivations, desires, and aversions, are controlled by what I choose to like or dislike. Obviously, there are external factors that influence these choices, but as reasoning, rational people we have the ability to separate the stimulus from the response and make our choices through sound judgment. More on this later.
At any given moment, all we have is our ability to perceive the world through our senses, make judgments of our impressions, and come up with a reasoned choice on how to respond, and we have complete and total control over that process.
Prohairesis:
the faculty of judging impressions and choosing how to respond, the only thing that is completely up to us at any present moment.
But surely there are things that are not up to me that influence my ability to make reasoned choices, right?
Of course, cognitive biases and psychological delusions exist, but the Stoics would say that, because we can reason, we have the unique ability to not let these influence our decisions. It is critical for us to learn about these biases and delusions, understand how to identify them, and how to dispel them. This is why the Stoics considered wisdom to be the highest virtue. Learning helps us make better choices.
Similarly, some may argue that our impulses occur unconsciously, like instinctually moving our hand away from a hot surface, or getting angry when someone threatens us. But modern cognitive science has proven that most of these “unconscious” actions are actually “subconscious.” Obviously, there are some biological effects that are truly unconscious, like the heightened heart rate and blood pressure associated with anger. But again these are warning signs that we should be on the lookout for, and we still have the choice to restrain ourselves when we become aware of them.
The subconscious sits just below our level of conscious awareness and can be “controlled” by changing our habits, attitudes, and beliefs that have been learned over time. Some of these are even evolutionary like our impulse to be afraid of the dark, but that doesn’t mean we can’t use our reason to overcome them, just as you would expect your children to!
When Epictetus teaches about prohairesis he includes both our subconscious and conscious thoughts and actions. That is why he stresses how important it is to take care of your prohairesis.
“Every habit and capacity is supported and strengthened by the corresponding actions, that of walking by walking, that of running by running. In general, then, if you want to do something, make a habit of doing it; and if you don’t, don’t do it, but get into the habit of doing something else instead. The same applies to states of mind. When you lose your temper, you should recognize not only that something has happened, but also that you’ve reinforced a bad habit, and you have, so to speak, added fresh fuel to the fire.” — Epictetus, Discourses 2.18.1–5
This is why awareness is so important to a practicing Stoic. You have to be aware of the state of your prohairesis so you can improve it, and work towards arete, on your road to eudaimonia.
Summary
Stoicism is a resurging philosophy based on some really complex ancient ideas. Most people that are drawn to Stoic philosophy want practical tips that will help them live a more tranquil and peaceful life. But to get the most out of these “life-hacks” it is important to understand three main Stoic concepts that are commonly lost in translation; eudaimonia, arete, and prohairesis.
Most practical Stoic guidance provides you with a way to improve or foster your prohairesis, or reasoned choice. They aim to improve or change your habits and increase your awareness, allowing you to make better decisions in your life. To the Stoics, this is the most important thing you can do.
“You are not your body and hair-style, but your capacity for choosing well. If your choices are beautiful, so too will you be.” — Epictetus, Discourses 3.1.39–40
Or as my Mom used to say, “make good choices!”
You become who you choose to be. You choose your thoughts, your desires, your aversions, your actions, and your words. These shape your opinions, your emotional intelligence, and ultimately your character, the essence of the person you will become.
Everything else is not up to you.
So, in every situation, no matter how undesirable it is, you always have the choice to strive for arete, to be the best you can be.
And through your choices, by taking care of your prohairesis, and pursuing arete, you will have lived a life worth living and successfully sailed your ship to Eudaimonia.
If you have any questions or comments about my opinions on these Stoic concepts please leave a comment below. I would love to discuss these ideas further.
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