Man and Psychedelics: The Three Waves of Change
Professor David Nutt, the UK government’s former drug czar, once claimed that the prohibition and restrictions surrounding the study of psychedelic drugs resulted in the “worst censorship in the history of science.” I would agree. We are just now able, through loosened regulations and a continuous stream of promising data, to repeat research that was done fifty or more years ago which demonstrated the incredible therapeutic qualities of these substances. Below, I’ll examine a history of psychedelics and their use within human society, including the three distinct waves of psychedelic use. I will also explore the exciting research that’s coming out from the field today, suggesting that we are living through a second Psychedelic Renaissance, and will suggest policy changes required and a potential future progression for the study of psychedelics.
Psychedelic drugs, and indeed other entheogenic plants and substances, have been used by humans for thousands of years. The first wave of use of these substances was often ritualistic and ceremonial and regularly integrated with the shamanistic beliefs of the people. Ethnobotanist Terrence McKenna, in his book “Food of the Gods”, suggested that after the domestication of cattle, psilocybin mushrooms became a new source of nutrition of man, due to their affinity for growing in cattle manure. With this newfound, easily-accessible source for altered states of consciousness on their doorstep, McKenna argued that early humans found a multitude of applications for it. Ranging from the spiritual in large doses, to the utilitarian, by using small doses to sharpen eyesight prior to hunting, through to the reproductive and community-building aspect, where McKenna suggests that our ancestors would eat moderate amounts of psilocybin-containing mushrooms and engage in tribal orgies. On top of this, McKenna proposed his “Stoned Ape Theory”, which, in a nutshell, posits that a near symbiotic relationship between our primate ancestors and psilocybin and psilocin-containing mushrooms, due to certain effects that those substances had on our brain, led to the evolution of our higher consciousness and everything that came with it, ranging from culture to language, through to spirituality and our very civilization. Whilst some of McKenna’s assumptions and conclusions might be farfetched and deserving of skepticism, in some ways it might be difficult to argue against them. Ongoing research suggests that ingestion of these substances produces a more complex pattern of brainwaves, a result that was unheard of, with all previously studied mental states exhibiting brain wave patterns that are simpler and more predictable than those exhibited in waking consciousness. On top of that, while traditional psychedelic use seems to have waned around most of the world, some extant Mesoamerican cultures can trace their continuous use of psychedelics as medicines and entheogens for thousands of years. When asked about the source of their knowledge of botany, and specifically of brewing the psychedelic ayahuasca brew, which requires the combination of at least two distinct plants, one containing the psychedelic compound dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and another containing a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), a substance which inhibits an enzyme that degrades DMT and prevents it from being orally active, the native peoples simply answered back: “the plants taught us.” While such statements are difficult to grasp from a ‘western’ perspective, and were therefore often dismissed as schizophrenic ideation, with time, research, and observation, it became clear that regardless of the origin of the traditions, rituals, and preparations associated with ayahuasca and other entheogenic substances in use, they seemed to have markedly positive long-term effects on their users.
The ‘western’ tradition of psychedelic use seemed to die down after its shamanistic beginnings, with only a handful of resurgences, like the Hellenistic initiation ritual of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which, due to the visions associated with them, some scholars believe involved the use of psychedelics. While some mescaline-containing cacti came to the attention of the scientific community in the late 19th Century, it wasn’t until Dr. Albert Hofmann discovered the psychoactive effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in 1943 that these substances experienced a resurgence in the ‘western’ world and the second wave of psychedelic use began. Having initially accidentally dosed himself with LSD on the 16th of April and noticing the peculiar effects, Hofmann decided to self-experiment with 250 micrograms of the substance, on the 19th of April, believing that to be a threshold dose. That was actually over twelve times more than a threshold dose and the intense and powerful experience convinced Hofmann that he’d synthesized something truly special. By 1947, LSD was commercially sold by Sandoz Laboratories for psychiatric applications. Having spread in popularity among psychiatric circles and being used by psychology students as part of their education, LSD rose to mainstream prominence throughout the fifties. Although initially thought to re-create a psychosis-like state, it was understood to be more complex than that, as people sought to study LSD’s effects on alcoholism, problem-solving, creativity, and personality disorders. Some of the early results from these studies were truly revolutionary. After treating several addicts with LSD, for whom the Alcoholics Anonymous program had previously failed, Dr. Humphrey Osmond recorded that after a year, 50% of them had not had a drink, a success rate that still goes unmatched. LSD was at the forefront of scientific inquiry, often described as a tool comparable to a microscope for examining the mind. Even the field of psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy which is only experiencing a limited resurgence today, 60 years down the line, saw its inception around this time.
However, this optimistic era of scientific innovation using psychedelics wasn’t meant to last. Behind the scenes, the CIA was testing LSD and other psychoactive drugs for their use in truth serums, mind control, and psychochemical warfare, through their MK-ULTRA project. All the while, psychotherapists like Timothy Leary were fervent about their recreational use of the drug and some even believed they could start a revolution of consciousness if they proliferated it amongst a large enough cross-section of the population. LSD use became so widespread, especially amongst the young, that it became centrally integrated with the countercultural and anti-war movements of the time. Through rising pressure, and a fear of losing control over their populace, the United States government forewent their existing research, and outlawed LSD in 1968. Classifying it as a Schedule I drug, claiming it to have no known medicinal applications and a high potential for abuse. Subsequently, following pressure from the United States, the 1971 UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances prohibited LSD and similar compounds globally. This change in attitude led to scientific research into these substances and any of their medicinal benefits becoming increasingly difficult and expensive, often stopping altogether. Over time there have even been reports that some of the studies, including ones in which LSD showed promise in being used to help treat alcoholism, were purposefully destroyed and/or discredited and the reputations of the researchers questioned. This sentiment was further accompanied by decades of propaganda, disinformation, and fearmongering about these substances. Yet, even throughout the prohibition, some continued their research into these compounds, in both official and not-so-official capacities, like Dr. Alexander Shulgin, who discovered, re-discovered, and self-experimented with over 230 different psychedelic and entheogenic compounds, or his wife, Ann Shulgin, who pioneered research into MDMA-assisted psychotherapy.
While this community of scientists, psychotherapists, and artists, continued their personal explorations of these substances underground, official scientific inquiry became taboo and didn’t gain a resurgence until 1990, with Dr. Rick Strassman’s research into DMT, which sowed the seeds of the coming Psychedelic Renaissance, and began the current third wave of psychedelic use. Whilst Strassman’s research was fairly comprehensive, if open-ended, and drew attention to interesting similarities in the various experiences among the research participants, one of its main legacies is laying the groundwork for serious research into psychedelic substances in the modern-day. Since then, we have had an incredible stream of promising research from the field. MDMA was found to be significant in assisting with psychotherapy for PTSD, as it aided in the disruption of the brain circuit responsible for associating memories with negative emotions and fostered a feeling of openness with the therapist. Both psilocybin mushrooms and ketamine have shown the potential to be revolutionary treatments for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder. LSD has been re-affirmed as being incredibly effective at treating alcoholism, as well as smoking along with other addictions. The psychedelic ibogaine has been shown to be extremely effective at treating opioid addiction. A wide range of psychedelics have demonstrated effectiveness at treating end-of-life anxiety. Ayahuasca and other psychedelics have been correlated with positive long-term changes in mental health. Studies have shown that psychedelic drug use is negatively correlated with violent crime. Preliminary results have also hinted at higher states of consciousness associated with the use of these substances. We have discovered what we believe to be the brain activity related to the ego-death experience. Additionally, studies have failed to correlate psychedelic drug use to mental health disorders, contradicting a long-established hypothesis.
There’s more research being done now than there has been for several decades, and the signs are very promising. With the overwhelming amount of positive results, it would be understandable to rush into this coming renaissance, an entire class of medicines, censored no more, however, we need to take precautions and tread carefully to avoid the result of the 1960’s crackdown catching up with us. To proceed successfully and integrate these much-needed medicines into our treatments for mental illnesses we must follow several steps. Firstly, we need to work towards loosening the regulations surrounding these drugs so that they are more accessible, less expensive, and less time consuming for researchers to acquire and study, further to this, with the “War on Drugs” having failed, we must entirely rethink our approach to drug policy and education. Secondly, we need to establish a large body of comprehensive and empirical scientific research into these substances. There has been a decades-long delay, and there’s a lot of catching up to do, especially considering that we desperately need a revolution in effective treatments for mental health problems right now and these substances may provide the answer if taken in the right environment with guidance and supervision. Lastly, we need to take heed of potential dangers in the path ahead. While no psychological treatments, not even cognitive behavioural therapy, are without their unique dangers and challenges, the misuse of psychedelics can have a lasting and extremely traumatic effect. As well as researching the therapeutic benefits of these substances, we must also understand their limitations, and research conditions like hallucinogenic persisting perception disorder (HPPD), which, although rare, can cause persistent and profound visual and psychological changes for those affected.
We are on the precipice of a mental health treatment revolution, and the ball’s already rolling. The times ahead, although fraught with the physical dangers associated with climate change, are tipped to be thought-provoking and intellectually exciting. Although over-zealous speculation is likely ill-advised, the reinvigoration of scientific interest in psychedelic drugs could give us new insights into the nature of consciousness, the mind, and the human condition, and in some ways it already has. From even a rudimentary inquiry it is evident that the use of psychedelic substances by our species has been present, varied, and widespread over millennia. From the way it’s looking now, their influence on our society will be felt for many years to come. Where the second wave of psychedelic use resulted in the integration of countercultural values into our society and the rise of a profound new type of individualism, the current wave’s effects on our society are yet to be fully realised or understood. Whilst we should remain cautious, thorough, and alert, but open-minded, I am excited to see the developments that the future holds and the understanding it unlocks. Quoting the comedian Bill Hicks, “Today a young man on acid realized that all matter is merely energy condensed to a slow vibration, that we are all one consciousness experiencing itself subjectively, there is no such thing as death, life is only a dream, and we are the imagination of ourselves. Here’s Tom with the Weather.”
