Supercharging Quinoa: How Genetic Modification Can Help Combat Malnutrition

Quinoa growing in the Bolivian Altiplano by Adrian Seah. Adobe Stock.

Every day 25,000 people die of hunger. Every day 10,000 children die from starvation. Every year 9,000,000 people die due to malnourishment. We are straying farther and farther away from achieving the zero hunger SDG goal by 2030. Not only are the statistics for malnourishment not decreasing, but they also grew by 150 million undernourished people from 2019 to 2022.

If you are reading this article, you probably never went a day wondering when your next meal would be. Although the statistics are frightening and very much real, the problem is easy to ignore. The problem we are talking about is the limited access people have to food and the variations in the food they consume.

Variations in consumed food are critical for our bodies to get all the essential macronutrients and micronutrients. Without a few of these nutrients, or even just one, the body will not properly function and will shut down some of its functions to preserve energy.

The challenge is not only a lack of food for people but also a lack of the essential nutrients the body needs to survive.

children waiting in line for food delivery by suheyp. Adobe Stock.

In less developed countries that often face higher rates of malnourishment monoculture crop farming proves to be simpler and more efficient. Monoculture farming involves growing one kind of crop, which involves less knowledge, effort, and resources than polyculture which deals with many sorts of plants.

If polyculture farming appears to be more difficult, how can farmers and people in less developed countries sustain:

a) enough crop to feed the required amount of people?

b) all crops that cover all of the essential micro and macronutrients?

It is very difficult.

But what if we had one staple food, one crop, that covers all of the necessary micronutrients and macronutrients needed to sustain human health?

Genetic engineering as well as cross-breeding different plants makes this solution possible. Through the use of genetic engineering and cross-breeding, we plan to insert all of the necessary micro and macronutrients into Quinao.

The significance? Planting only one type of seed, collecting one crop, yet still getting all of the necessary nutrients to live.

Contents:

1. Introduction
2. What is genetic engineering?
3. What is cross-breeding?
4. The essential micronutrients and macronutrients
5. Why Quinoa?
6. How is each of the lacking nutrients going to be inserted?
7. Production of seeds
8. Sustainability
9. Why is this solution important?

What is genetic engineering?

Genetic engineering is altering the DNA in the genome of an organism. For plants, DNA is transferred into plant cells, which develop into tissue culture and then grow into a plant. The new DNA will be contained in the seeds produced from the plant.

Although there are a lot of controversies involving genetically modified organisms (GMOs), many of these GMOs are eaten on a regular basis. Here are a few examples:

• Corn: GMO corn produces proteins that are toxic to pests and herbicides but not to humans and animals.
• Soybean: most soybeans grown in the US are GMO soy.
• Potato: some GMO potatoes were developed to resist pests and disease.
• Rainbow Papaya: a GMO Papaya created to resist ringspot virus in the Hawaiian Islands, saving Papaya farming.

The steps of genetic engineering

1. Identifying the desired trait: Such as the resistance to a certain pest, or an increased nutritional value.
2. Sourcing the desired trait: It is important to find the correct plant to source the gene from. Genetic engineering between plants in the same family, or more closely related plants means higher success rates for the acceptance of the new gene.
3. Isolating the gene: The gene responsible for the trait is isolated.
4. Modifying the gene: In the laboratory, the gene is modified, which may involve inserting a new gene, deleting a gene, or changing how the genes are expressed.
5. Inserting the modified gene: the modified gene is then inserted into the DNA of the target organism. This can be done through a couple of methods.
6. Screening and testing: this is a vital stage to test if the desired trait has been successfully transferred and that the genetically modified organism is safe for consumption.

Methods of inserting the modified gene

Below are two common methods used for GMOs:

1. Agrobacterium Tumefaciens method.

Transfer of a piece of plasmid by bacteria into plant cells during infection.

a) T-DNA plasmid (circular DNA molecule found in bacteria) is removed from the bacterium.

b) A restriction enzyme cuts the T-DNA plasmid

c) The desired DNA cut with the same restriction enzyme is inserted into the plasmid.

d) Bacteria enter through wounded sites. Binding to the plant cells and incorporating itself in the plant cells' chromosomes.

e) More plant cells are cultured.

f) A plant expressing the inserted trait is grown.

2. Particle Gun Method

A direct physical method of gene insertion.

a) DNA-coated micro-particles encoding desired traits.

b) Proppeled with high velocity through cell walls into the target area.

c) Genomes are inserted into the cell's DNA due to the high velocity

What is cross-breeding?

A cross-bred plant is a result of crossing over two species of plants or two varieties of plants, also called a hybrid plant. When the different plant species interbreed, they create a new species of plant. The pollen that carries the genes for the desired trait is transferred from one type of plant to the other. For the desired trait to appear in a variety of plants there has to be a careful selection of plant offspring, to determine which ones will be bred again to produce the new plant species.

Essential micro and macronutrients for the human body.

As mentioned at the start of the article, our bodies need numerous micro and macronutrients to properly function. But just how many? Below is a list of the necessary nutrients this “super-plant” would need to have to be able to sustain a human alone:

Vitamins (micro-nutrients) :

1. Vitamin A (retinal, beta-carotene)
2. Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
3. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
4. Vitamin B3 (niacin)
5. Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)
6. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
7. Vitamin B7 (biotin)
8. Vitamin B9 (folate)
9. Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)
10. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
11. Vitamin D (cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol)
12. Vitamin E (tocopherols, tocotrienols)
13. Vitamin K (phylloquinone, menaquinones)

Minerals (micro-nutrients):

1. Calcium
2. Phosphorus
3. Magnesium
4. Potassium
5. Sodium
6. Chloride
7. Iron
8. Zinc
9. Copper
10. Manganese
11. Iodine
12. Selenium
13. Molybdenum
14. Chromium
15. Fluoride

Macronutrients:

1. Proteins: The plant should contain all of the nine essential amino acids that the human body can’t synthesize on its own. It should ideally provide sufficient quantities of each of the amino acids to meet the daily intake recommendation. This includes:

a) isoleucine

b) leucine

c) lysine

d) methionine

e) phenylalanine

f) threonine

g) tryptophan

h) valine

2. Carbohydrates: The plant should provide both simple carbohydrates, which are easily absorbed by the body, and complex carbohydrates, which undergo a slow and sustained release of energy. Simple carbohydrates include glucose, fructose, and sucrose, while complex carbohydrates contain starch and dietary fiber.

3. Fats: Healthy fat as well as essential fats (that the body can't produce on its own) should be contained in the plant. These essential fats are omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) and omega-6 (linoleic acid). To be able to promote health in the body, the plant should have low numbers of saturated fats.

Why Quinoa?

Imagine the complexity of engineering all of the above macro and micronutrients into a plant! What makes Quinoa the right candidate to become the base of the genetically modified plant? Quinoa is rich in protein, containing all of the nine essential amino acids that the body cannot synthesize on its own. It is also a great source of complex carbohydrates dietary fiber, and minerals like magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese.

White quinoa rice background and texture by Peangdao

Quinoa is becoming a very worldwide plant. It originated in South America and although it was initially grown in Bolivia and Peru the number of countries producing Quinao is rapidly increasing. Quinao has been commercially produced, or at least tested, in more than 100 countries in the world (Quinao quality worldwide). Rwanda and other African countries use Quinao as their source of protein where the majority of families do not have access to large protein amounts.

Quinoa is still far from being the ideal food due to its need for higher levels of vitamins, essential fatty acids, and other micronutrients. Below is a list of the most important nutrients that Quinao lacks:

1. Vitamins:

a. Vitamin B12 (cobalamin): B12 is primarily found in animal-based foods and Quinao contains no vitamin B12.

b. Vitamin D: Quinoa does not contain significant amounts of vitamin D, which is usually created by the skin through sunlight exposure or from fatty fish, enriched foods, or supplements.

c. Vitamin A (retinol, beta-carotene): Quinoa contains only small amounts of vitamin A.

2. Minerals:

a. Sodium: Quinoa is naturally low in sodium.

b. Iodine: Quinoa does not supply substantial amounts of iodine, which is generally obtained from iodized salt, seafood, and dairy products.

c. Selenium: Quinoa contains small amounts of selenium, a mineral that is found in higher concentrations in nuts, seafood, and some meats.

d. Chromium, Molybdenum, and Fluoride: Even in significant amounts of Quinao, these trace minerals aren’t present.

3. Macronutrients:

a) Fats: While quinoa contains a small amount of healthy fats, it provides low amounts of essential fatty acids such as omega-3 and omega-6. It also does not supply enough fat to meet the daily requirements.

Although Quinao has a good starting base for the super plant it still requires modifications to meet the daily intake requirements for the human body.

How are the missing nutrients going to be inserted into Quinoa?

Quinoa is a highly nutritious crop, but it is possible to advance its nutritional content through genetic modification using techniques such as CRISPR.

CRISPR-Cas9 Mechanism & Applications by hhmi BioInteractive

CRISPR-Cas9 allows scientists to make targeted changes to an organism’s DNA. By using this technology, researchers can potentially introduce specific genetic modifications to enhance the nutritional profile of quinoa. For example, they could modify genes involved in the production of essential nutrients, such as increasing the levels of certain vitamins, minerals, or amino acids. A lot of research and testing are required to ensure the safety, efficacy, and long-term impact of any GMO before it can be considered for commercial use or widespread cultivation.

Traditional breeding techniques can also be used to enhance Quinoa. Traditional breeding techniques can select and crossbreed plants with desired traits, including those related to nutritional values. Both genetic modification techniques and conventional breeding methods offer different approaches for crop improvement, and their usage depends on various factors, including the specific goals and regulations in place.

Gene drives are genetic elements that bias inheritance patterns, increasing the chances of a specific gene being passed on to future generations. They work by exploiting natural mechanisms of DNA repair and replication within an organism’s genome. The most well-known and widely studied type of gene drive is based on the CRISPR-Cas9 system. CRISPR-Cas9 is a powerful gene-editing tool that uses a guide RNA (gRNA) to target a specific DNA sequence and a Cas9 protein that acts as a molecular scissor to cut the DNA at that target site. In the context of gene drives, CRISPR-Cas9 is used to introduce and spread genetic modifications throughout a population.

Here is how CRISPR-Cas9 is applied to Quinoa:

1. Identify target genes: The first step is to identify the specific genes responsible for the production or regulation of the missing micro and macronutrients in quinoa. This requires a comprehensive understanding of the metabolic pathways involved in nutrient synthesis and accumulation.
2. Design the CRISPR-Cas9 system: Once the target genes are identified, a guide RNA (gRNA) is designed to specifically bind to the DNA sequence of the target gene. The gRNA serves as a guide for the Cas9 protein, which acts as a molecular scissor that cuts the DNA at the target site.
3. Deliver the CRISPR-Cas9 components: The CRISPR-Cas9 components, including the gRNA and the Cas9 protein, need to be introduced into the cells of the quinoa plant. This can be achieved through various delivery methods, such as agrobacterium-mediated transformation or biolistic particle bombardment, to deliver the genetic material into the plant cells.
4. DNA cleavage and repair: Once inside the plant cells, the Cas9 protein binds to the target gene’s DNA sequence guided by the gRNA. It creates a double-strand break (DSB) at the desired location in the DNA. This break triggers the cell’s natural DNA repair mechanisms.
5. Promote the desired repair: To insert the missing micro and macronutrient genes, researchers can utilize different DNA repair pathways. One common approach is homology-directed repair (HDR), where an exogenous DNA template containing the desired nutrient genes is provided. The cell can use this template to repair the DNA break and incorporate the nutrient genes into the plant’s genome.
6. Tissue culture and regeneration: After the DNA repair process, the modified cells need to be cultured and regenerated into whole plants. This is often achieved through tissue culture techniques, where cells are grown in a nutrient-rich medium under controlled conditions. The goal is to generate whole plants from the modified cells.
7. Verification and selection: The regenerated plants are screened to identify those that have successfully incorporated the desired nutrient genes. Various techniques, such as PCR and DNA sequencing, can be employed to confirm the presence and integration of the inserted genes. Additionally, the nutrient content of the plants can be analyzed to ensure the desired nutritional changes have occurred.
8. Field testing and evaluation: The selected plants undergo rigorous field testing to evaluate their performance and stability. This includes assessing their growth, development, nutritional composition, and agronomic characteristics under different environmental conditions. The plants are compared to non-modified quinoa varieties to determine the efficacy of the genetic modifications.
9. Regulatory considerations: Before genetically modified quinoa with enhanced nutrient content can be commercialized or widely cultivated, it must undergo regulatory approval in accordance with the guidelines of the specific country or region. This involves extensive safety assessments, environmental impact evaluations, and adherence to regulatory frameworks governing genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

Some of the above-listed nutrients prove to be much harder than others to insert in Quinao. However, for each nutrient, there is a possible way to add it to the base. Like any other GMO, each of these techniques would require trial and error as well as testing the end result to confirm the successful transfer of the genome.

In general, to genetically modify Quinoa to produce a particular nutrient, researchers would need to identify and introduce the genes that encode the specific enzymes or the genetic sequence required for the synthesis of the nutrient.

The process would look as follows:

1. Identify the genes responsible for the biosynthesis of the desired vitamin: Scientists would need to identify the genes that encode the enzymes involved in the particular biosynthesis. These genes are typically found in other organisms, such as bacteria or plants, that produce the desired nutrient.
2. Isolate the genes: Once the genes have been identified, they would need to be isolated and cloned into a vector, such as a plasmid, which can be used to transfer the genes into the quinoa plant.
3. Introduce the genes into the quinoa plant: The vector containing the biotin biosynthesis genes would then be introduced into the quinoa plant using a variety of techniques, such as Agrobacterium-mediated transformation or biolistics. These techniques involve introducing the vector into the plant cells and allowing it to integrate into the plant genome.
4. Screen for the desired nutrient production: Once the genes have been integrated into the quinoa genome, scientists would need to screen the plants for biotin production. This can be done by measuring the levels of biotin in the plant tissues using various biochemical assays.
5. Select and breed the modified plants: Once the desired nutrient-producing plants have been identified, they can be selected and bred to produce more plants with the desired trait. This can be done through conventional breeding methods, such as crossing the modified plants with other high-yielding quinoa varieties.

Below are two examples of how this process would occur with Vitamin12 and Vitamin A.

Vitamin B12

Let’s begin with Vitamin B12. Quinoa contains no vitamin B12 and creating a genetic pathway to introduce B12 would be challenging. Vitamin B12 is a complex molecule and its synthesis requires multiple enzymes and steps. As far as humans know, Vitamin B12 is synthesized by certain bacteria and archaea and has no (known) naturally occurring plant sources.

Researchers have been exploring the possibility of modifying plants to produce vitamin B12. In 2013, a team of researchers successfully had a plant produce Vitamin B12 precursors by introducing bacterial genes responsible for cobalamin synthesis into Arabidopsis thaliana. This study demonstrated the potential for plants to produce Vitamin B12, however, it has yet to be applied to other crops.

To apply this process to Quinao, scientists would need to introduce the correct bacterial or archeal genes that result in collabin synthesis. Additionally, they would need to ensure that the plant correctly expresses these genes, produces the required enzymes, and carries out the needed biochemical reactions.

Vitamin A

Engineering quinoa to produce higher levels of vitamin A, or more specifically, its precursor beta-carotene, is more feasible than producing vitamin B12. Beta-carotene is a carotenoid pigment that can be converted into vitamin A (retinol) in the body. Plants naturally produce carotenoids, and their biosynthesis pathways are well-studied.

To enhance the beta-carotene content in quinoa, scientists can utilize genetic engineering techniques to introduce or upregulate the genes responsible for the biosynthesis of beta-carotene. This has already been done in other crops, most notably in the development of “Golden Rice,” a genetically modified variety of rice with increased beta-carotene content.

The process would involve the following steps:

1. Identifying the critical genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway, specifically those responsible for converting precursor molecules into beta-carotene.
2. Introducing these genes into quinoa using genetic engineering techniques, such as Agrobacterium-mediated transformation or CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing.
3. Optimizing the expression of these genes and assessing the impact on quinoa’s carotenoid profile, ensuring that the desired increase in beta-carotene content is achieved without negatively affecting other aspects of the plant’s growth and development.

Seed Production

Like golden rice, the seeds of genetically modified plants will be the final product. This will be able to be distributed in large sums around the world for farmers to grow a super plant Quinoa.

Sustainability

To create the Quinao to truly be a superfood plant, it should abide by the goal of a sustainable future. Here are 5 options to make Quinao more environmentally friendly:

1. Reduce the use of pesticides and herbicides: By engineering, plants to be resistant to pests and diseases, it is possible to reduce the amount of pesticides and herbicides used in farming. This can help reduce the negative impact of these chemicals on the environment.
2. Improve soil health: By engineering, plants to have more efficient nutrient uptake or to produce their own nutrients, it is possible to improve soil health and reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers.
3. Reduce water usage: By engineering, plants to be more drought-resistant, it is possible to reduce the amount of water needed for irrigation, which can help conserve water resources.
4. Increase crop yields: By engineering, plants to have higher yields, it is possible to reduce the amount of land needed for farming, which can help preserve natural habitats and reduce deforestation.
5. Consider the long-term effects: When engineering GMOs, it is important to consider the long-term effects on the environment. This includes evaluating the potential for gene transfer to wild populations, the impact on non-target organisms, and the potential for unintended consequences.

Why Is This Solution Important?

Malnourishment is a serious issue that leads to a wide range of negative effects in people's lives. Not only physically. Living in a place where need obtaining food and performing agricultural duties are the main priorities is limiting and stressful. The population doesn't get educated. The people don’t have as much time as the person reading this article does to pursue their interests and develop themselves. In some locations, getting food will be the citizen’s first priority. Yet we still ponder on how these areas are less developed.

1225765564 Shutterstock

Farmers struggle to support their communities, not just with the quantity of food, but the diversity of food that needs to be grown to provide all of the nutrients.

Now change that narrative.

One seed.

One crop.

One harvest.

That is all that is required to feed a person. Less labor, less agricultural expertise, and less time will be spent cultivating this new food. People will be able to focus their energies outside of the agriculture industry and advance personally and advance the society they are in.

This isn’t just a fight against hunger, it is a fight for people’s freedom.

Works cited:

Thelwell, Kim. “Agricultural Sustainability: Quinoa in Africa.” The Borgen Project, 7 Oct. 2020, borgenproject.org/agricultural-sustainability-quinoa-in-africa/#:~:text=In%20many%20African%20countries%2C%20such,Aid%20introduced%20quinoa%20to%20Ethiopia.

“Losing 25,000 to Hunger Every Day.” United Nations, www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/losing-25000-hunger-every-day. Accessed 14 May 2023.

“World Hunger Facts & Statistics.” Action Against Hunger, 24 Jan. 2023, www.actionagainsthunger.org/the-hunger-crisis/world-hunger-facts/.