Evolution of Female Filmmakers in Sri Lanka: A Historical Perspective
Sri Lankan cinema has historically lacked adequate representation of female filmmakers. Despite facing numerous obstacles, however, women in the industry have risen to the challenge, crafting compelling narratives featuring strong female characters and diverse perspectives that defy societal norms. As Sri Lankan cinema undergoes transformation, these trailblazing women persist in reshaping storytelling and challenging gender stereotypes. This study delves into the historical, cultural, and economic factors influencing the evolution of women’s cinema in Sri Lanka, examining the pivotal roles these filmmakers play in a predominantly male-dominated industry, spanning from pioneering figures to contemporary luminaries.
Introduction
In the world of cinema, Sri Lanka has made its mark as a unique and captivating backdrop for storytelling. Over the years, the country’s rich culture, stunning landscapes, and complex social dynamics have inspired countless filmmakers. However, one group of creators has been relatively underrepresented and understudied within this cinematic tapestry—Sri Lankan female filmmakers.
The cinematic landscape of Sri Lanka has been predominantly shaped by male directors, leaving the perspectives and voices of women largely marginalized. This paper aims to explore the fascinating world of Sri Lankan female filmmakers, shedding light on their contributions to the industry, the challenges they face, and the potential they hold to reshape the narrative of Sri Lankan cinema.
Historically, Sri Lankan cinema has grappled with its share of challenges, from political upheavals to shifts in funding and distribution. For female filmmakers, these challenges can be compounded by societal expectations, gender bias, and limited opportunities. The purpose of this study is to delve into these barriers and provide a comprehensive understanding of the status of female filmmaking in Sri Lanka.
As we embark on this journey, we will seek to answer several essential questions: Who are the pioneering female filmmakers in Sri Lanka? What are their experiences in the industry, and what barriers have they encountered? How do their works contribute to and transform the Sri Lankan cinematic landscape? Through in-depth analysis and personal narratives, we aim to highlight the resilience, creativity, and vision of Sri Lankan female filmmakers and advocate for a more inclusive and diverse film industry in the country.
By recognizing and celebrating the contributions of Sri Lankan female filmmakers, this paper aims to inspire a broader conversation about the need for gender equality and diversity in the world of cinema. The stories told on the silver screen are not only a reflection of a nation’s culture but also a powerful tool for social change. The voices of female filmmakers in Sri Lanka have the potential to break new ground, challenge stereotypes, and reshape the narrative of a country that is steeped in a rich history of storytelling. The pages that follow will embark on a journey to uncover the stories behind the lens and discover the powerful narratives woven by Sri Lankan female filmmakers. This exploration will illuminate the potential for change and advocate for a more inclusive and representative film industry in Sri Lanka.
It took 32 years since the beginning of Sri Lankan cinema for female filmmakers to mark their opening footprint on the silver screen until, in 1957, Rukmani Devi joined as the producer of the film, “Siriyalatha (1957).” After 40 years, the first Sri Lankan woman to step into the director’s role, Florida Jayalath, co-directed “Sweep Ticket (1965)” alongside Raja Joshua. Since then, Sri Lankan women have continued to make films, and the representation of female filmmakers in the industry has slowly grown. Nevertheless, the progress of women’s cinema proved inadequate in dismantling the enduring male dominance that remained prevalent in the field.
The aforementioned graph shows the number of films directed by male and female directors between the introduction of talkies in 1947 and 2016. The data demonstrates that there was a consistent upward trend in the number of films directed by male filmmakers between 1947 and 1986. The male directors released 38 movies in the first ten years, from 1947 to 1956, and their continued growth reached a maximum of 299 movies from 1977 to 1986. Then, between 2007 and 2016, there were 178 films, a tiny downward trend. In contrast to male directors, the release of films by female directors was always at a fairly modest level. There was no release of films from women directors in the country in the 1947–1956 period, but by 1977–1986, the number had increased to a maximum of five films. Again, another five films were directed by women during the 1987–1996 period, however, from the 1997–2006 and 2007–2016 periods, only three films were directed by women, following the downward trend of the industry.
In the early days of filmmaking, the pioneering female filmmakers were primarily actresses who transitioned into the world of film production. There are two major reasons why actresses were afforded the opportunity to pave the way for their entry into filmmaking. Firstly, owing to the initial lack of knowledge, technology, and expertise in filmmaking, from the very inception of Sri Lankan cinema with “Rajakiya Wikramaya Nohoth Kantha” (1925) and through the early films, Sri Lankan filmmakers had to rely on India for various aspects of filmmaking, including shooting, processing, and editing (Dissanayake 2008). Actresses, in particular, had greater access to these filmmaking resources. Secondly, traditional local barriers restricted women from venturing into various sectors of life and society, in fact, in the early days of the cinema industry, there were very few women in authoritative positions apart from their roles as actresses (Abeysekera 1989: 57). These dependencies and societal barriers significantly influenced the representation of Sri Lankan women in the industry and the development of women’s cinema during its nascent phase.
The very first female producer, Rukmani Devi, and female director, Florida Jayalath, were pioneering actresses in the early era of Sri Lankan cinema. Rukmani Devi played a prominent role as the lead in the first Sri Lankan talkie, “Kadawunu Poronduwa” (1947), while Florida began her acting career in 1951 with the film “Sengawunu Pilitura” (1951) before their entry into filmmaking. Subsequently, veteran actress Ruby de Mel directed and produced her debut film, “Pipena Kumudu” (1967), and Rohini Jayakody directed her first film, “Hangi Hora” (1968). However, after their initial forays into filmmaking, they continued their careers as actresses and did not further engage in film production.
According to the assessments of film scholar and feminist Sunila Abesekara, these actress-turned-filmmakers did not make substantial contributions to the development of Sri Lankan women’s cinema (Abeysekera 1989: 54). This is primarily because the portrayal of women in their films adhered to heavy stereotypes, a common feature in Sri Lankan films of that period. Most female characters in their films were confined to passive and subservient roles that conformed to prevailing societal norms. Moreover, given that they often portrayed the lead female characters in their films, it could be argued that their forays into filmmaking were more strategic choices aimed at playing specific character roles than a deep-seated passion for the art of filmmaking. Nonetheless, as noted by film scholars like Denise Lowe, it is essential to recognize that all these pioneering women played important roles in the industry (Lowe 2014: vii). Their recognition can also serve as a valuable resource for future female filmmakers, allowing them to learn from the successes and challenges faced by their predecessors and make more informed decisions in their own filmmaking journeys.
Early popular Indian cinema introduced a genre termed “semi-operatic melodrama” (Jayamanna 1981: 145). This genre featured films that incorporated elements such as songs, dances, conflicts, reconciliations, and, notably, the portrayal of women in highly rigid and stereotypical roles. Early Sri Lankan cinema was significantly influenced by this genre due to its reliance on filmmaking resources from India (Dissanayake 2008). The representation of women in Sri Lankan films mirrored broader social, political, and cultural patriarchal norms that were prevalent in both Sri Lankan and Indian societies. The value judgments of right and wrong were rooted in patriarchal ideals and monogamous sexual practices. These standards gave rise to a prototype of the “Good” woman in Sri Lankan genre cinema, characterized by traits of passivity such as patience, self-sacrifice, a willingness to endure suffering, and obedience to patriarchal authority. However, early SL female films, even delimiting the above-mentioned common factors of typical films, often portrayed stronger characteristics for female characters who were not entirely subservient to their family and social states.
For instance, the very first Sri Lankan female-led films, “Siriyalatha” (1957), produced by Rukmani Devi, and “Sweep Ticket” (1965), co-directed by Florida Jayalath, are family melodramas that revolve around the struggles of women as they strive to regain the affection of the men they love. “Sweep Ticket” tells the story of a naive villager who wins the lottery and journeys to the city to claim his prize, only to fall victim to a couple of con artists and gradually detach from his family and roots. The narrative centres on his wife’s determined efforts. She travels to the city, transforms her appearance to that of a city girl, and cleverly wins back her husband’s love. The film concludes with the couple returning to the village and resuming their lives together happily. The resilience and resourcefulness of these women in these films, even while operating within patriarchal norms, highlighted their active role as influencers of their surroundings. These factors, combined with their participation in seminal films of their era, underscore the significance of acknowledging early female filmmakers and their filmmaking practices. Recognizing their contribution is instrumental in establishing a historical foundation for a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of Sri Lankan women’s cinema.
During the 1960s, a surge of nationalistic chauvinism, driven by anti-Tamil sentiments and a growing wave of national economic fervour, coincided with significant political changes. These factors collectively had a substantial impact on the Sri Lankan cinema industry, reaching a climax in 1965 when the Sri Lankan government imposed a ban on film production in India (Jayamanna 1981). This shift marked a transformation in the early film industry landscape, with a departure from transnational collaborations with India and a shift toward national cinematic endeavours (Jayasinghe and Dissanayake 2008). The producing sector and various aspects and parameters of filmmaking underwent considerable changes. This transition led to a notable increase in the number of films being produced in the country (as indicated in Chart 01), parallel to a growing local audience for national cinema.
During this period, however, countries like Sri Lanka did not make significant strides toward achieving gender equality in societal practices, nor did they embrace the Western feminist movements of the era. As a result, prevailing patriarchal norms persisted, and female representation continued to remain at a persistently low level in various sectors, including the film industry (Perera 2019). Nevertheless, the emergence of one of the most prominent female filmmakers, Sumithra Pieris, played a pivotal role in reshaping the Sri Lankan cinematic landscape. The entry of Sumithra into the Sri Lankan cinema industry left an indelible mark on the narrative, and her impact is best understood through the following reflections:.
“At the time when I entered the world of films, it was alien to many. People were not keen on sending their daughters to this uncharted world of filmmaking, acting and directing…There are limitations that exist both physically and socially, when a woman tries her hand at filmmaking. I am happy that I was able to overcome these …” (Peiris 2006)
In 1963, Sumithra Pieris began her cinematic journey by assuming an off-camera role as an editor for the film Gamperaliya (1963). Her directorial debut, Gehenu Lamai (1978), not only achieved international acclaim but also marked the beginning of an illustrious career. Throughout her lifetime, she made ten artistically rich and internationally recognized films. This impressive body of work established her as a distinguished female filmmaker and earned her the title of the most prolific female filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema. What makes her filmmaking particularly fascinating is that all of her films centre around women and their lives, often portraying women with strong characterizations. In her film Yahalu Yeheli (1983), she depicted a resilient young woman who challenged her family and its traditional conventions to stand with the villagers in their struggle for land. In Sagara Jalaya Madi Haduwa Oba Handa (1988), Sumithra sought to alter the fate of a young widow in the arid regions of rural Sri Lanka.
While Sunila Abeysekera noted that none of Sumithra’s films could be explicitly labelled as feminist (Abeysekera 2008), her filmmaking undeniably presented the world of women in a cinematic manner, breaking new ground in the landscape of Sri Lankan women’s cinema. Her significance in Sri Lankan cinema was not only highly regarded locally and internationally but was also sometimes mistakenly attributed to being “the first woman filmmaker” in the industry (The Morning 2023). This misidentification, unfortunately, hindered the recognition of the equal contributions of other female filmmakers who were active in the industry before her. Moreover, it obscured the broader discussion about Sri Lankan women’s cinema and its evolution.
As theatres buzzed with the excitement of audiences experiencing the cinematic offerings in a burgeoning film culture, the Sri Lankan cinema industry underwent rapid growth within the local market. This growth continued until 1977 when the Sri Lankan government introduced “The Open Economy,” a form of liberal capitalism (Senevirathne 2016). This new economic model propelled society from a sophisticated consumer culture to one marked by boundless consumption. The shift away from government control in this economic landscape opened the floodgates to an influx of foreign films into the country. The tradition of watching high-quality films on the big screen was gradually replaced by the purchase of low-quality DVDs from makeshift vendors on city streets. These changes, within the economy, society, industry, and market are often identified as the key factors hindering the qualitative development of Sinhala cinema. The consequences were clearly visible as local cinema attendance began to dwindle after reaching its peak by the end of the 1970s (Senevirathne 2016). Many local theatres faced closures, abandonment, or transformation into alternative businesses, such as supermarkets. Some theatres even attempted to coexist with these supermarkets. The absence of government oversight in film distribution, coupled with administrative problems at the government Film Corporation, resulted in local filmmakers waiting for years to secure theatrical releases. This, in turn, led many film producers to abandon their endeavours, marking the decline of what was once the illustrious era of the Sri Lankan film industry.
During this challenging period for the Sri Lankan film industry, the entry of veteran actress Malini Fonseka into filmmaking held particular significance. Her initiation into filmmaking was important not only due to the timing but also for the balance she struck between box office success and cinematic quality. Malini commenced her acting career in the film Punchi Baba in 1968 and has since appeared in over 150 feature films (Asia Pacific Screen Awards 2023). She expanded her career into filmmaking by directing and producing Sasara Chethana (1984). Unlike previous actresses who abandoned filmmaking after their debut, Malini continued to craft films alongside her acting career. Her directorial works included films like Sthree (1991), Ahinsa (1987), and Sandamadala (1994), all of which revolved around women and female-related issues. In her films, she often featured stories that adhered to the prevailing idea of a monogamous family structure. These narratives portrayed powerful female characters who, while occasionally mistaken for feminists, conformed to traditional notions of obedience to family and societal norms. What remained consistent was her portrayal of strong female characters, a reflection of her passion for showcasing this strength, which was sometimes lacking in her acting career. While her films enjoyed success at the local box office, Malini Fonseka’s legacy as an actress remains more widely celebrated than her achievements as a filmmaker.
Subsequently, from the 1980s until today, early industrial film production transitioned into a private investment model, which, in parallel, triggered a significant transformation of various filmmaking aspects and parameters. Private investors, who had amassed capital through ventures in jewellery, pawnshops, newspaper and electronic media agencies, tuition, education, and gambling, began pouring funds into the film industry (Senevirathne 2016). This shift had a profound impact on the roles of film directors, producers, and production relations within the local film industry.
These entrepreneurs, despite holding the title of producer in the films, often played more of an executive producer role. Their primary function was to invest money, and they generally did not possess in-depth knowledge of the filmmaking process. Consequently, their presence on the film set during the shooting was not considered mandatory. This newly established production model, driven by profit as its primary motive predominantly produces purely entertaining content. Dr. Sarath Amunugama, a prominent film enthusiast, characterized this situation as “money collecting” (Amunugama 1990).
The shift to an open economy brought about dramatic changes in Sri Lankan society, creating a significant disparity between traditional Sri Lanka and the demands of the new global capitalism. The adoption of a consumer market, with altered identities, values, and customs, opened up opportunities for many Sri Lankan women to climb the ladder of capitalism and emerge as leaders in various industries, empowered by their financial independence. The newly evolved private film financing model appealed to these women, drawing them into the world of cinema. Despite the downward trend in the Sri Lankan cinema industry over the years, this shift increased the representation of female film producers, outpacing the representation of female directors.
The graph above displays the proportion of female producers in films that were released in Sri Lankan theatres between 1947 and 2016. The data demonstrate that there were no female producers in the industry between 1947 and 1956, and the first two films were produced between 1957 and 1966. There was a steady rise in the proportion of women producers in the film industry from 1947 to 1996, followed by a modest fall until 2016, parallel to the industry’s downfall. Despite the fall in local movie releases, there was a steady increase in female producers until 1997–2006, and the maximum number of 57 females joined production during the period.
During this era, two notable female producers emerged: Soma Edirisingha and Milina Sumathipala. Soma played a significant role in shaping the industry as one of the foremost entrepreneurs, owning one of the major film production companies in the country, E.A.P. Films & Theatres Private Limited. She produced around 20 films, from “Dhawala Pushpaya” (1994) to “Ko Mark No Mark” (2014), a record number for a female filmmaker in the country. Many of her productions achieved high profits, as evidenced by local box office records. However, most of these films were comedies that adhered to typical patriarchal stories, celebrating the hypersexualized role of women and featuring double-meaning practical jokes. These films often objectified women and perpetuated the male gaze, leading to criticism that labelled her as a capitalist producer primarily focused on creating “cheap films” for financial gain, unconcerned with artistic value or cultural norms (Senevirathne 2016: 56). Notably, Soma did not produce films by female filmmakers, and despite her extensive efforts to empower women through broader social services, she did not contribute to the development of women’s cinema.
In contrast to Soma, Milina Sumathipala showed an interest in women’s cinema by producing two films directed by female filmmakers: “Ganga Addara” (1980) and “Duwata Mawaka Misa” (1997) by Sumithra Pieris. The other two films, “Paththini” (2016) and “Uthpalawanna” (2007), were directed by Sunil Ariyaratne. Each of her films revolved around narratives with a strong female focus, exploring themes of family, sacrifice, identity, and redemption. However, her filmmaking occupied a contrasting space by simultaneously engaging with feminist discourses and celebrating patriarchal interpretations of femininity. While “Gaga Addara” depicted a passive girl who, in dire circumstances, decides to end her life, becoming a victim of circumstances, “Duwata Mawaka Misa” powerfully highlighted women’s active role in reconstructing their lives, even in the face of adversity, emphasizing the strong bond between a mother and her daughter. The film also introduced a fresh perspective to the conventional Sri Lankan and, more broadly, Asian taboo surrounding premarital pregnancy and the family challenges it entails. Among the other two films, “Paththini,” which narrated the story of a goddess venerated across Asian societies for her unwavering chastity, exalted a patriarchal view of femininity and womanhood. In contrast, “Uthpalawanna” could be seen as a feminist narrative, delving into a woman’s quest to discover her own path and purpose while confronting the limitations imposed by a patriarchal society. Milina prioritized quality over profit and displayed a sincere commitment to the advancement of women’s cinema.
Most other female producers in Sri Lanka during this period were motivated by various factors and coexisted as professional producer-director collaborations or self-appointed business ventures. For example, many Sri Lankan box office actresses entered production during this period by investing their earnings from cinema. This allowed them to gain symbolic and market value, facilitating their ascent to the next level in the industry as actresses. The films they produced often featured strong female lead characters or at least strong supporting characters played by them, allowing them to demonstrate their acting capacity through challenging and multidimensional roles. Some also ventured into producing arthouse films with the potential to win awards at local and global film festivals.
While many female producers expressed interest in contributing to the improvement of female society, their actions often did not align with their vision for the development of Sri Lankan women’s cinema. They sometimes contradicted their own positions, interests, and motives in producing films. Although they empathized with the female characters in their films and aimed to promote a more feminist cinematic interpretation of the reality of Sri Lankan women, their actions frequently upheld existing patriarchal ideologies. In many cases, these female producers were influenced by gender stereotypes and family responsibilities that perpetuated gender bias and hindered the progress of women’s representation in the industry. This illustrated that being in a leadership position did not always equate to possessing leadership qualities or decision-making power in highly male-dominated industries like Sri Lanka’s film sector. The slow-changing gender stereotypes in society produced female leaders who did not contribute to gender equity or equal female representation in the industry, as they were trapped in their own patriarchal paradox of gender bias, stereotypes, and family responsibilities that took precedence over their professions.
During these tumultuous times in the industry, female directors continued to make their mark with a passion for cinema that prioritized quality over profit. Rather than conforming to the commercial formula obsessed with box office trends, Sri Lankan women’s cinema made significant strides in artistic and cinematic development during this period, opening up new avenues for women’s filmmaking. These filmmakers harnessed multi-faceted transnational capital models, allowing them to circumvent national commercial monopolies and reach international audiences. Many of their films earned recognition at international film festivals, focusing on themes that challenged societal taboos and explored the role of women in a patriarchal society. Their filmmaking introduced the long-missing “Female Gaze” to Sri Lankan cinema (The Morning 2022).
The arrival of directors Anomma Rajakaruna, Sumathi Sivamohan, and Inoka Sathyangani marked a revolutionary development in Sri Lankan women’s cinema during this time. Anomma Rajakaruna, in particular, played a historically significant role in the documentary genre, depicting real-life stories of women in her international award-winning films. Her work often portrayed controversial stories of women in Sri Lankan society and pushed the boundaries of freedom of expression. Her telefilm, “Vilangu” (1989), narrates the story of a mother who went to court against her son and was banned from screening in the country for around five years. Her other documentary films, such as “Through a Glass Darkly” (1995) on sexual harassment, “Yet Another Five” (2000) on five rape victims, “Face to Face” (1998) on human-elephant conflict, and “The Other Women” (2004) on women and armed conflict in Sri Lanka, contributed to weaving feminist narratives in Sri Lankan cinema. In addition to her role as a festival director for film festivals like Agenda 14 and Jaffna International Film Festival, she was also a short film producer, promoting diverse voices, cultural exchange, and the art of filmmaking.
Sumathi Sivamohan, the first Tamil female filmmaker to release a Tamil-language film in Sri Lankan theatres, filled the gap in Tamil-language film production in the country and addressed the underrepresentation of Tamil female filmmakers throughout the history of Sri Lankan women’s cinema. Her debut film, “Ingirunda” (2013), depicted the challenges faced by the Tamil community in the Sri Lankan plantation sector, including violence from the state and other institutions. Her film “Fathers and Sons” (2017) centred around the life of a Tamil musician, his Sinhalese wife, and stepson during anti-Tamil tensions and the July 1983 riots, offering a candid portrayal of Tamil life. Her award-winning work in fiction and documentary questioned power, authority, and imperial trajectories.
Inoka Sathyangani theatrically released her internationally and nationally acclaimed directorial debut, “Sulang Kirilli,” in 2003. The film portrayed the journey of an unmarried pregnant woman navigating the complexities of abortion laws and societal expectations, raising questions about social responsibility.
The cinema industry continued to grapple with crises and uncertainty, struggling to find strategies for industrial development and adapt to the changing preferences of postmodern contemporary audiences. In this context, growing international platforms and funding mechanisms provided new opportunities for Sri Lankan female filmmakers to reach international audiences, often bypassing the long-grown struggle of national film distribution. Internationally acclaimed debut films like “Talking With The Wind” (2017) by Jayashika Padmasiri and, “House of My Fathers” (2018) by Suba Sivakaran have yet to be released in the country, highlighting the industry’s ongoing challenges. However, these international support systems alone were insufficient to address the lack of female representation in a predominantly male-dominated industry.
The emergence of the multiplex cinema revolution offered a solution, particularly to the long-standing issue of film distribution in Sri Lanka. Mini theatres within multiplexes, located in shopping complexes like PVR Cinema, recently opened their doors for personal film launches. Filmmakers took advantage of this opportunity to release their films, bypassing the lengthy government distribution procedures and private sector monopolies. This approach proved advantageous for artistic films and documentaries, allowing them to find niche audiences who appreciated unique voices and perspectives. Female filmmakers also benefited from this new venture. For example, the internationally acclaimed documentary “Our Mother, Grandmother, Prime Minister: SIRIMAVO” (2023) by Anomaa Rajakaruna and “Minarets” (2023) by Nadya Perera recently launched their films in these theatres for very short days, eventually ended up extending screening periods due to continued audience participation.
In summary, the journey of women in Sri Lankan cinema is a remarkable testament to their unwavering determination in an industry predominantly dominated by men. Despite facing initial challenges, these women played pivotal roles, offering invaluable lessons for aspiring female filmmakers. As Sri Lankan cinema evolved and underwent transformative shifts, female filmmakers emerged as strategic trailblazers, leaving indelible marks on the narrative. While not all of them may be explicitly labelled as feminists, their consistent commitment to portraying women’s lives, defying traditional roles, and celebrating strong, complex female characters was profound. Their influence on Sri Lankan cinema, driven by a genuine passion for the art that prioritized quality over profit, fearlessly challenged societal norms, explored underrepresented perspectives, and pushed the boundaries of storytelling. Despite ongoing industry challenges, these filmmakers found diverse ways to connect with audiences and share compelling narratives. In the ever-evolving landscape of Sri Lankan cinema, these women have consistently defied the odds, infusing their unique voices and perspectives into the medium while challenging societal norms. Their journey is a testament to the enduring power of storytelling and the indomitable spirit of women in the world of film. As Sri Lankan women continue to pioneer new frontiers in cinema, their contributions will undoubtedly shape the future of women’s cinema in the country and resonate far beyond its borders.
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