Music Archaeology: Interpreting Musical Discoveries through Historic Material Culture
Luke Shefski
Monmouth University: Historic Artifact Analysis AN 507
14 April 2022
Music archaeology, also known as archaeomusicology, is an integral component of the field of ethnomusicology. It is an interdisciplinary practice which combines elements of traditional archaeology as well as cultural and musicological studies. The objects of analysis are musical instruments, and where possible, the sites where these instruments are discovered (Olsen 2007:13). Like any other artifact discovered on an archaeological site, musical instruments are scientifically categorized and undergo rigorous analysis for dating and measurements. Additionally, they are, if possible, recorded and tested for their sonic qualities (Olsen 2007:13). Another form of analysis integral to music archaeology is music iconology, which uses text to understand musical artifacts. Text, in this case, is broadly defined as a set of “compositional units” that have symbolic and communicative meaning to members of the community creating it (Hanks 1989:96). In the context of music archaeology, this text can come in many different forms, such as depictions of or writing about an instrument. It can also apply to symbolism relating to the instrument itself (Olsen 2007:13).
The distinction between music iconology and iconography must be made clear, in that iconography “refers to the description of the material objects themselves that are the objects of study” (Olsen 2007:13); iconography does, however, have its place. Illustrations of instruments have been discovered that give cultural and historic information (Kolltveit 2000:19). In large part, researchers have used music archaeology to learn about the musical behavior of ancient communities, but discoveries have been made that deepen scientific understanding of music during the historic period. This essay will discuss how evidence uncovered through studying historic material culture can help researchers interpret these discoveries.
Music archaeology is closely related to the New Archaeology movement that arose during the 1960s (Both 2009:6). Lewis Binford, one of the proponents of New Archaeology, “turned to human behavior and cultural patterns, understanding material culture as a means for investigation beyond the tangible and visual boundaries” (Both 2009:6). With this in mind, Arnd Adje Both has outlined two aspects of New Archaeology that apply particularly well to the discipline of music archaeology. The first is ethnoarchaeology, which interprets discoveries made in an archaeological setting based on ethnographic information. This is related to ethnographic analogy, which Both considers to be useful in studying the sociocultural phenomena surrounding musical expression. He calls this approach “a bridge between music archaeology and ethnomusicology” (Both 2009:6).
The second aspect of New Archaeology that Both outlines is experimental archaeology. Experimentation is useful when researching a form of material culture that correlates broadly to artistic experiences still commonplace today. Through careful analysis and craftsmanship, instruments can be recreated and heard anew. Instrument production techniques are studied in this way. Experimentation also applies to the playing of the recreated instruments in order to determine acoustic as well as functional qualities (Both 2009:7).
One primary challenge to music archaeologists is that musical instruments are, undoubtedly, rare finds in archaeological sites. In order for archaeologists to uncover pre-modern instruments made from organic material, they must have been disposed of either in an “extremely dry or in an anaerobic environment (Hakelberg 1995:9); alternatively, they must undergo “hydroconservation,” or submerging in water, which is common in central Europe (Hakelberg 1995:9). When well or even partially preserved instruments are discovered, they can have a significant impact on archaeologists’ understanding of the pre-modern world. For example, analysis of a lyre discovered in Kazakhstan uncovered a potential fourth century link between that region and Western Europe (Kolltveit 2022:208).
The lyre is an ancient form of chordophone instrument. It is double-necked, with a soundbox and typically six to seven strings (Kolltveit 2000:19–20). Though the lyre can be traced back to the ancient Mediterranean world, it remained in use in Northern Europe through the early and middle medieval period (Kolltveit 2000:19). The 1930s discovery of a buried Anglo-Saxon ship at Sutton Hoo in the United Kingdom turned up fragments of a lyre (Kolltveit 2022:208), among a great many other artifacts. Coins discovered at this site indicated that the ship had been buried in the first half of the seventh century (Fagan & Durrani 2016:158). Lyres are also commonly found at Scandinavian archaeological sites, in addition to iconographic evidence such as stone carvings, paintings, and sculpted church ornamentation (Kolltveit 2000:19–22).
At the same time, the Soviet Union embarked on a substantial archaeological survey of Central Asia. Some decades after the Sutton Hoo discovery, in 1973, archaeologists in the Aral Sea region of Kazakhstan excavated a collection of wooden objects (Kolltveit 2022:208). The significance of these finds went unrecognized until 2018, when Dr. Azilkhan Tazhekeev re-analyzed the collection and found remains “astonishingly close” (Kolltveit 2022:208) to the type of lyre found at Sutton Hoo. According to music archaeologist Gjermund Kolltveit, “in size, shape, and method of construction, the two traditions appear barely distinguishable” (Kolltveit 2022:208). Though the quality of these lyres is somewhat degraded (Kolltveit 2022:210), this discovery could nevertheless provide potential evidence of a cultural or economic link between these geographically disparate regions during this period. With this in mind, researchers can look to both known and new artifacts to enhance scientific and historical knowledge of this exchange. Kolltveit concludes that the Kazakh lyre may indicate Western European exchange with areas even further east than the Aral Sea (Kolltveit 2022:211).
Another important aspect of music archaeology is organology, a form of typology that applies to musical instruments. Organology is, essentially, the science of musical instrument classification. One of the most well-known systems for this mode of classification is the Hornbostel-Sachs system which classifies musical instruments into categories based on their vibratory qualities (Hornbostel and Sachs 1961). Organologies can also be made of individual instruments, such as Douglas MacMillan’s list of known recorders from the period 1800 to 1905. It is through the lens of organology that the material culture surrounding instruments begins to become clear.
MacMillan’s paper is an effective example of the categorization of artifacts within a classification system in that it provides a historic context for the production of a commonly-known musical instrument. Recorders, an aerophone, or wind instrument, that had evidently fallen out of fashion in the 19th century. As ubiquitous as they are in modern grade-school music classrooms, as of his writing, he knew of only 122 recorders manufactured between the end of the 18th century and 1905 (MacMillan 2007:191). This organology outlines the physical and functional characteristics of the recorder, and distinguishes them from the Hungarian czákány and the Western European flageolet (MacMillan 2007:191–192). He then describes notable manufacturers of recorders and their locations, outlining the long-running recorder manufacturing industry in Berchtesgaden, Bavaria (MacMillan 2007:194), and goes into detail on the distinction between the recorders’ maker’s marks and their relationship to the pitch mark (the lowest note capable of being played on these instruments) (MacMillan 2007:191–196). Tying his organology to historical context, he details a revival period for the recorder as a performance instrument at the end of the 19th century. During this period, manufacturers made copies of renaissance and baroque-period recorders (MacMillan 2007:196). Before proceeding with his list, he briefly speaks about the music composed for the recorder during the period of his study (MacMillan 2007:197). This list gives the reference number, maker, dates, location or ID number, type, and length of the instrument. In many cases, the maker is unknown. He also includes notes describing unique characteristics of each instrument, if any, such as “theatre instrument” and “lost in World War II” ( (MacMillan 2007:199–202).
Recorders are, in fact, an excellent way to study the preservation of musical instruments as evidence of historic material culture. The earliest recorder known in Europe was uncovered in 1940 after the excavation of a castle site in Dordrecht, in the Netherlands. As this castle was occupied between the 14th and early 15th centuries, it is reasonable to assume that this recorder dates to that period. There has been extensive study of this particular recorder (Lander 1996). In 1987, there was a second recorder discovery, this time in a latrine in Götingen, Germany (Lander 1996). As Dietrich Hakelberg explains in his paper on this discovery, he believes this recorder dates back to the 14th century, based on its position relative to other layers of latrine material. Dendrochronological dating of the bottom strata provides dates between 1246 and 1322 (Hakelberg 1995:5). This passage from Hakelberg’s work represents a sample of what music archaeologists look for when they analyze an instrument:
The Götingen recorder is in one piece. It has a rather unusual profile and a length of 256 mm. Seven finger holes on the front and a thumb hole on the reverse side are cut obliquely into the quartering of the wood. The seventh hole, for the little finger, is doubled. The finger holes are not undercut, but rather the reverse: they taper conically outwards. Only a cut side of the wind duct has been preserved. The rest of the top end has been broken off. Presumably, this irreparable damage, rendering the instrument unplayable, led to its disposal in the latrine… The labium, also only partially preserved, deviates some 15 degrees from the alignment of the finger holes. The bore, cylindrical for the most part, has a diameter of c. 11.8 mm. Surprisingly, a narrowing of the bore by about 1 millimetre at the second finger hole and by about 1.5 mm at the seventh, doubled finger hole could be determined. The bore expands to 14.5 mm at the bottom of the instrument. (Hakelberg 1995:5)
Though this is a detailed physical description of an artifact, Hakelberg still finds room for behavioral interpretation, before even reaching the sonic qualities of its reproduction. Even though there have only been six subsequent recorders discovered from this period (Lander 1996), the disposal of the Götingen recorder in a latrine may speak to their relative affordability, and possible ubiquity. It is difficult to know for sure, because instrument makers crafted these recorders out of wood, which deteriorates over time. Of eight medieval recorders, archaeologists discovered five in areas near subsurface water deposits which allowed for the preservation of these artifacts (Lander 1996). In order to form a hypothesis addressing the prevalence of recorders during this period, and perhaps the reasons for this type of disposal, music archaeologists must turn to iconology and look for textual evidence. There may be research to be done on the reasons that recorders fell out of favor, as well work regarding the standardization of such instruments and their development from Götingen to Berchtesgaden.
Applying multidisciplinary methods to musical discoveries on archaeological sites can produce potent results. It is rare, for example, to uncover musical notation in such a setting, but that is exactly what happened at an excavation of a Jacobin convent in Rennes, France. The building dated to 1368, was in use until the French Revolution and was subsequently commandeered by the military (Gaugne et al. 2020:2). Between 2011 and 2013, researchers from the National Institute of Preventive Archaeological Research uncovered a dozen engraved plates of local shale dating to the 15th century, one of which featured an inscription that appeared to be musical notation. The plate with the notation was covered in various graffiti, with an inscription on the opposite side of the game Nine Men’s Morris. The musical score features four lines, a marker representing the key of C, and 39 notes (Gaugne et al. 2020:4–5). Musicological analysis provides no correlation to a known composition, and there is no signature. According to the authors of this study, “the absence of a signature is common to many ancient and religious works for which the author, inspired by God himself, would not allow himself to appropriate the creation of what he sincerely believed was coming from heaven” (Gaugne et al. 2020:7).
Because this fragile plate contained not just the score but also a potential wealth of other information, the researchers worked to reconstruct it digitally as a 3D interactive model using photogrammetry, reflectance transformation imaging, and digital microscopy (Gaugne et al. 2020:7–12). As part of their analysis, the researchers hired singer Dominique Fontaine to interpret the score (Gaugne et al. 2020:13). The recording of this performance is featured in the digital application created to showcase this discovery. Uncovering a seemingly complete musical score is a rare enough occasion, but the ability to commission a musical performer to interact with and interpret an artifact in order to give it life outside of scientific analysis is part of what makes music archaeology such a potent method for understanding the past. Because of this work, a 21st century audience can hear what may have been an odd jotting by an unknown medieval composer.
The authors of this study note that there are several other instances of historic scores coming down through material culture and being interpreted by modern performers. One of the more unique instances is a type of knife on display in several museums which features musical notation on the broad steel blade. These were mealtime knives — cutlery — dating back to the 15th century. The inscription implies that these knives were included in sets which would have created a full polyphonic musical composition, or composition made up of multiple voicings. Additionally, the lyrics inscribed with the music comprise a benediction, a thanksgiving or saying of grace, an act of great importance during this period (Dennis 2010:171). The standard interpretation, then, is that these knives would have been used not only in dining but in a ritual wherein participants would sing their thanks prior to beginning the meal. This ritual fundamentally united members of a group in song as well as food (Dennis 2010:173). However, questions remain. It is unknown whether the inscriptions were used by servers, performers, or the diners themselves (Dennis 2010:173). Thanks to the efforts of the Royal College of London, an interpretation of these songs is now available for listening online (Jones 2017).
Despite the mysteries that surround these unique objects, it is clear that they represent a structural change in the way musical performance was organized. This encompassed a movement away from centrally organized songbooks to distributed, individual parts, which Flora Dennis calls “previously conceptually impossible” (Dennis 2010:175). Another artifact that represents this shift is a piece of majolica earthenware from the 16th century which also features an inscription reading “Altus,” which implies “the existence at one point of similar dishes bearing the three other parts (Cantus, Tenore and Bassus)” (Dennis 2010:176). In other words, a full polyphonic composition. Through this application of music iconology to artifacts associated with musical behavior (Olsen 2007:13), music archaeologists can reasonably hypothesize that music during this period was closely associated with ritual and communal experience during meals, a significant understanding of past society.
Like any other study of the past, music archaeology can encounter some serious challenges when it comes to interpreting its findings. Instruments may remain in similar forms for long periods of time, but the sociocultural context in which they are used is fluid. For this reason, music archaeologists rely heavily on textual material (Both 2009:7). The practice of applying experimental archaeology to musical instruments also is not necessarily the most reliable way to discover exactly how an instrument was played. There are limits to what can be known about something as subjective as musical performance. As Both admits, “… experimental playing cannot be regarded as evidence of a particular scale or mode … One could have absolutely no idea about Japanese shakuhachi music, if the only available evidence were the instrument” (Both 2009:8).
Where does music archaeology stand today, and what is the future of the profession? Music archaeology is a young and developing field, with a small but dedicated group of researchers working to legitimize and advance its knowledge. The International Study Group on Music Archaeology (ISGMA) is based in Berlin, and is part of the International Council for Traditional Music. Founded in 1998, they hold regular symposia, publishing papers on all topics. (ISGMA 2020).
Recently, there has been work in the field of organology to consolidate and understand the connection between scientific and musical instruments. Dolan and Tresch (2013) identify what they consider to be an “artificial divide” (Dolan and Tresch 2013:278) between musicology and organology. They point out the capacity of software as a stand-in for musical instruments, with the capability of reproducing sounds digitally, and draw a parallel between this advancement of the tools of music and the digitization of the tools of science by way of digital laboratory and experimental technology. They then detail literature that connects scientific instruments with those of music, and conclude that a greater emphasis on the analytic tools of the physical sciences in musicology would be time well spent (Dolan and Tresch 2013:297–298).
Additionally, advances in digital imaging techniques and 3D modeling create exciting new opportunities for music archaeologists to more deeply understand and experience their discoveries, as in the case of the music slate discovered in the Jacobin convent. In particular, 3D printing technology has shown potential for replicating instruments, such as the case of Billy Ó Foghlú, who recreated an item, discovered in Ireland, that was previously believed to be the butt of a spear. He hypothesized that it had actually been a mouthpiece for a horn, and discovered upon applying it to a horn that he owned that it increased tonal control and musicality of the instrument (Australian National University 2015). This is perhaps circumstantial evidence, but it increases knowledge of this artifact and demonstrates the utility of 3D reproductions to impact the way scientists perceive ancient artifacts. Recreating these instruments is one of the primary objectives of ISGMA (ISGMA 2020).
Music archaeology encompasses many of the techniques of traditional archaeology. Considering the rarity of such finds, researchers place emphasis on understanding the textual evidence for instruments within cultures. Even an understanding of the type of place that an instrument was discovered sheds light on the circumstances surrounding its use, whether that place is a Jacobin convent or a medieval latrine. The development of organology allows music archaeologists to place their findings within a greater ethnomusicological context. Instruments represent the ritual and artistic sides of historic material culture. Unique among artifacts, modern people are capable of interacting with instruments in such a way as to recreate their former subjective qualities, aided by ever-more accurate reproductions. In this way, music archaeology is capable of bringing sound, energy and life to the study of the past.
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