The Evolution of Aesthetics: A Retrospective on 20th Century Design
There is a common misconception about design as a field of practice — both within the field and without — that design is about making things look pretty; that design is synonymous with art. This is only half true. Design is as much a science as it is an art. Art merely has to exist, while design is an answer to a question, a solution to a problem. Art is perceptual, while design is rational.
The narrative of design history unfolds across epochs, transitioning from the early simplicity of necessary tools to the more nuanced sophistication of the Pre-Industrial Era.
Various hominin species coexisted simultaneously, thus determining which species created specific tools at a given archaeological site poses a challenge. However, this challenge is secondary to the valuable insights these tools offer regarding the technologies, mental skills, and innovations within the capabilities of these early human toolmakers.
These technological advancements trace as far back as 2.6 million years ago in the Early Stone Age, marked by basic stone tools. Around 1.76 million years ago, hand-axes and large stone cutting tools emerged. In the Middle Stone Age (around 200,000 years ago), stone technology started rapidly progressing, with diverse toolkits for various purposes like crafting spears, perforating animal hides with stone awls, and preparing materials with stone scrapers. By the Late Stone Age, humans expanded tool materials to include bone, ivory, and antlers. Craftsmanship also improved, reflecting distinct cultural identities in tool creation.
The Pre-Industrial Era relied heavily on craft production, where a singular, skilled individual designed and crafted a product in a single operation. Until the 19th century, wealth was predominantly tied to land-ownership, and the landowning aristocracy served as the primary patrons of the arts and design. Public taste was shaped largely by aristocratic education traditions, which were heavily influenced by the Classical past, drawing inspiration from Greek, Roman, and Renaissance models of taste.
In the late 18th century, tradesmen and craftsmen occupied the lower rungs of the social ladder. However, this group — comprising of ironmongers, glassmakers, clockmakers, and inventors — played a pivotal role in developing the machines and power sources that would ultimately serve as the catalyst for the Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution
Between the 18th century and the mid-19th century, an entirely new technology emerged, centred around machines, and not reliant on variable energy sources like human power, water, or wind, and instead, these machines harnessed the power of steam, providing a continuous and constant driving force.
Steam revolutionised rail transport, ocean travel, factory engines, and met the energy needs of various applications – streamlining the necessary processes and industries like mining and manufacturing. This era also witnessed advancements in electricity, engineering, precision clocks, oil extraction, and the development of the internal combustion engine, facilitating a significant burst of inventive activity.
The Machine Age had begun.
Many of the design movements of the late-19th century and into 20th century were defined by major societal shifts, wars, and technological advancements and innovations, and were a direct response to the Industrial Revolution and the onset of mass-production.
As a result, a “two-track” approach to design came into effect:
1) A utilitarian, functional, consumer-led approach.
2) An aesthetic, prestigious, and social approach.
For some it was not enough that the product performed its designed task. Artisans wanted the product to reflect the status of its owner with rich, highly-decorated materials, which could sometimes impede its efficiency of use. However, the factory system and mass-production would ensure that the utilitarian design approach would dominate consumer-led forces of Modern Design.
The innovations of the Steam Age brought profound changes to the world and scientific advancements facilitated quick and cost-effective mass production. With this in mind, it is important to understand that the design movements of the early 20th century require consideration of significant economic and political factors influencing their definitions.
Movements like Arts & Crafts and Bauhaus both responded to the era of mass-production, albeit very differently. The Arts & Crafts movement sought to transcend machines by working to recapture the essence and quality of medieval craftsmanship by producing handcrafted metalwork, jewellery, wallpaper, textiles, furniture, and books. In contrast, the Bauhaus School embraced technology, redefining traditional art schools by erasing the boundary between art and design. The teaching and products of Bauhaus continue to exert a lasting influence on contemporary design.
In the second half of the 20th century, social factors still played a pivotal role in the influence and innovation of design. The 1960s saw the start of decades of political and social reform, with student protests, the ultimate dismantling of the Apartheid government in South Africa, the new demands of women regarding the right to vote and independence, the rise of consumerism, and demonstrations against the Vietnam war in the United States. All of these events had global reach, requiring designers to begin placing a higher emphasis on cultural sensitivities in their works.
20th Century Design Movements: A Timeline
1850 — 1920: Arts & Crafts Movement
The Arts & Crafts movement was a largely British aesthetic movement that started in response to the popularisation of mass-production during the Industrial Revolution. The movement considered the machine to be the root of all mundane evils, and worked to revive quality handcraft production. Simple forms were one of the main hallmarks of the Arts & Crafts style, rejecting extravagant and superfluous decoration. Nature was an important source for motifs, with patterns often being inspired by the flora and fauna of the British countryside.
1880 — 1940: Modernism
Modernist design often embraced a pragmatic perspective, asserting that new technology made traditional styles obsolete. A prevailing architectural principle of the movement posited that buildings should serve as “machines for living in.” Adhering to this machine aesthetic, modernist designers eschewed decorative motifs, opting instead to highlight materials through pure, geometric forms. Modernism typically prioritised simplicity, clarity of form, and the deliberate absence of clutter.
1890 — 1910: Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau, meaning “new art” in French, is a global artistic, design, and architectural style distinguished by intricate, flowing, curvilinear designs that frequently integrate floral and natural motifs. Additionally, hyperbolas and parabolas were commonly employed in this style.
1897 — 1914: Vienna Secession
The Vienna Secession, aesthetically akin to Art Nouveau, emerged in response to the conservatism of Austrian art institutions. Secessionists embraced diverse artistic styles and sought artistic production beyond academic canons, advocating for an aesthetic detached from historical art. The movement promoted innovation in contemporary art and design without being confined to any specific style. Essentially dissenting, the Secession defined itself as an “art total,” resembling more of a philosophy than a movement, free from political or commercial constraints.
1907 — 1935: Deutscher Werkbund
The Deutscher Werkbund, a state-sponsored group of German architects, designers, and craftspeople, aimed to establish industrial, craft, and aesthetic standards ford Germany. Their objective was to integrate traditional crafts with industrial techniques to position Germany competitively against England and the USA. The Werkbund played a crucial role in advancing modern and industrial design, laying the foundation for the later establishment of Bauhaus.
1909 — 1930: Futurism
Futurism marked the inaugural instance in the history of art and design where a movement was structured and operated akin to a business. Futurism exhibited a highly-progressive outlook, embracing technological advancements and extolling the potential and dynamism of the modern age. Inspired by the mechanism of war, Futurism glorified warfare in its resultant works.
1916 — 1923: Dada
Dada, or Dadaism, emerged as an avant-garde art movement in response to World War I. Comprising of artists and designers, the movement rejected the logic, reason, and aestheticism of modern capitalist society, advocating instead for nonsense, irrationality, and an anti-bourgeois protest in their creations. Initially rooted in performance art, Dada later expanded to encompass visual, literary, and sound media.
1917–1931: De Stijl
The De Stijl movement, also known as Neoplasticism, originated in the Netherlands, and was a design movement that embraced abstraction, simplicity, and a reduction to basic geometric forms. De Stijl sought to achieve a universal visual language that spiritual harmony. Characterised by the use of primary colours, black, white, and straight lines, the movement aimed to distil artistic expression to its fundamental elements.
1917 — 1937: Constructivism
Constructivism, a movement originating in Russia after the 1917 Revolution, rejected traditional artistic conventions and aimed to create a new visual language aligned with the revolutionary spirit. Characterised by geometric shapes, abstraction, and the use of industrial materials, Constructivism sought to integrate art with technology and industry, emphasising functionality and social engagement. Influencing various disciplines, the movement played a crucial role in shaping the visual culture of the early Soviet Union and left a lasting impact on modern design worldwide.
1919 — 1933: Bauhaus
The Bauhaus movement, founded in early 20th century Germany by Walter Gropius, aimed to integrate craftsmanship with industrial technology. Characterised by a minimalist aesthetic and an emphasis on functional design, Bauhaus sought to break down traditional barriers between art and craft. This interdisciplinary approach significantly influenced modern design, and impacted disciplines like architecture, furniture, and graphic design.
1920 — 1939: Art Deco
Art Deco is an influential design movement marked by an eclectic and glamorous style, and is characterised by sleek lines, geometric shapes, and intricate detailing, reflecting the exuberance and dynamism of the Jazz Age. The movement emphasised luxury, geometric patterns, and bold colours, drawing from various cultural and artistic sources.
1925 — 1930: Surrealism
Surrealism, an artistic and literary movement that emerged in the early 20th century, sought to express the irrational and subconscious aspects of the human mind. Characterised by unexpected juxtapositions, dreamlike imagery, and an explosion of the unconscious, Surrealism aimed to unleash creativity, while challenging societal norms.
1930 — present: Organic Design
Organic Design refers to a design philosophy and approach that draws inspiration from natural forms and structures, and is rooted in the idea that objects and spaces can emulate the fluidity, symmetry, and efficiency found in nature. Organic Design seeks to create harmonious and integrated designs that involves the use of biomimicry, where designers emulate biological principles and processes in their creations.
1935 — present: Scandinavian Modern
Scandinavian Modern is a design movement that emerged in the mid-20th century in the Nordic countries. This design style is characterised primarily by simplicity, functionality, and a strong emphasis on craftsmanship. Scandinavian Modern often features clean lines, minimalistic aesthetics, and a focus on natural materials. The design philosophy prioritises practicality, comfort, and a timeless quality, making it a significant influence on contemporary design trends.
1935 — 1975: Mid-Century Modern
The Mid-century Modern movement refers to a design and architectural style that saw its peak in the 1950s. The movement is characterised by clean lines, organic shapes, and a focus on functionality. Mid-century modern design sought to bring modernism to everyday living, and was greatly influenced by Bauhaus principles, Scandinavian design, and the International style. It emphasised simplicity, open spaces, and a connection with nature. Key features include flat planes, large windows, and a seamless integration of indoor and outdoor spaces, and remains influential in contemporary design aesthetics.
1936–1984: Kitsch
Almost exclusively studied in Germany until the 1970s, Kitsch is a term applied to art and design that is perceived as naive imitation, overly eccentric, gratuitous, or of banal taste. Tomáš Kulka’s Kitsch and Art proposes three essential conditions for something to be considered kitsch: the subject must be beautiful or highly emotionally charged, it must be instantly and effortlessly identifiable, and it must not substantially enrich our associations related to the subject. To brand something as “kitsch” is often still pejorative, though not exclusively. Art or design deemed as kitsch may be enjoyed in an entirely positive and sincere manner, as it carries the ability to be quaint or quirky without being superficially offensive.
1958 — 1972: Pop Art
Pop Art sought to challenge traditional notions of by incorporating popular culture, consumerism, and mass media imagery into artistic expressions. Pop Art celebrated everyday objects, advertising, and celebrity culture. The movement is characterised by its use of bold colours, graphic elements, and a sense of irony or detachment. By appropriating and recontextualising familiar images from mass media, Pop Art aimed to blur the boundaries between high art and popular culture, making art more accessible to a broader audience.
1960 — 1969: Space Age
The Space Age aesthetic was characterised by a futuristic and optimistic design language inspired by the achievements and aspirations of the space race. Design elements included sleek, streamlined shapes, metallic surfaces, and references to space travel, such as rocket shapes and celestial motifs. The aesthetic influenced various areas, including architecture, product design, fashion, and graphic design, capturing the public’s fascination with the exploration of outer space and the possibilities of the future.
1965 — present: Postmodern Design
The Postmodern design movement emerged as a reaction against the perceived limitations and principles of Modernism. Postmodernism in design is characterised by a departure from the strict functionalism and minimalism of modernist design, instead embracing eclecticism, irony, and a playful recombination of historical styles and cultural references. Postmodern design often incorporates elements of past design movements, blurring the lines between high and low culture. Postmodernism challenges the notion of a single, universal style, and encourages a more subjective, diverse, and context-dependent approach to design. Notable features of postmodern design include the use of ornamentation, historical allusions, and a rejection of the idea that form should strictly follow function.
1967 — present: Minimalism
The Minimalism movement is a design philosophy characterised by simplicity, functionality, and the use of minimal elements to achieve a clean and uncluttered aesthetic. Rooted in the principle that less is more, Minimalism seeks to distil design to its essential elements, eliminating excess ornamentation and emphasising practicality. Minimalist design often features a neutral colour palette, straightforward geometric shapes, and a focus on negative space. Minimalism promotes a sense of tranquillity and functionality, creating designs that are timeless and adaptable.
1981 — 1988: Memphis
The Memphis design movement was a postmodern design movement, named after the influential Memphis Group, founded by Italian designer Ettore Sottsass. Characterised by its bold use of colour, geometric shapes, and a playful eclectic approach to design, Memphis rejected the austere principles of minimalism and embraced a more vibrant and expressive aesthetic. The movement often featured asymmetrical compositions, clashing patterns, and the use of unconventional materials. Memphis drew inspiration from a variety of sources, including Art Deco, Pop Art, and Kitsch, resulting in designs that were whimsical, unconventional, and deliberately Provocative.
1988 — present: Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism is an architectural design movement that is characterised by a departure from traditional architectural conventions and an emphasis on fragmentation, distortion, and the manipulation of geometric forms. The movement was influenced by the philosophy of deconstruction, which questions traditional assumptions about language, meaning, and structure.
“Design creates culture. Culture shapes values. Values determine the future.” — Robert L. Peters (author and designer)
Art and Design are shaped by the politics, technology, and the atmosphere of the periods that they are situated in, influencing pieces, posters, and typographical innovations. Societal factors — economic, social, political, and cultural — guide designers in creating work that communicates effectively.
In his essay, Abstraction and Empathy, German art historian Wilhelm Worringer argues that our aesthetic preferences often mirror the qualities we perceive as lacking in society. For instance, a culture grappling with turmoil may gravitate towards a style embodying simplicity and a sense of control. Conversely, a society feeling overly regulated might appreciate beauty in a more creative, expressive, or natural and unfussy style.
It’s common to dismiss others’ tastes, especially when they align with a style we don’t personally favour. However, Alain de Botton suggests a more empathetic approach. Even if we struggle to share someone else’s enthusiasm, he encourages us to inquire about what aspects a person might be lacking in their life to find a particular style beautiful.
Understanding history is crucial for analysing both past and present contexts, providing inspiration for future designers. Referencing revolutionary ideas from the past adds depth to creative works; though, sometimes, new and progressive thoughts intentionally challenge existing norms.
