vinegar, sour liquid that is made by the fermentation of any of numerous dilute alcoholic liquids into a liquid containing acetic acid. Vinegar may be produced from a variety of materials: apples or grapes (wine or cider vinegar); malted barley or oats (malt vinegar); and industrial alcohol (distilled white vinegar). There are also vinegar made from beer, sugars, rice, and other substances.
Vinegar can be made from any liquid that is capable of being converted into alcohol in a two-step process. The fruit juice or other liquid contains sugar, which is converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas by the actions of yeast enzymes. The alcohol thus formed combines with atmospheric oxygen by the action of Acetobacter bacteria, forming acetic acid and water. Organic acids and esters derived from the fruit or other source material are also present and are responsible for the flavour and aroma variations of vinegar. Acetic acid makes vinegar strongly acidic, with a typical pH of 2–3.
White vinegar, sometimes called distilled or spirit vinegar, is a clear solution generally containing 4–7% acetic acid and 93–96% water. Historically, white vinegar has been produced from the fermentation of foods such as sugar beets, potatoes, molasses or milk whey. Today, most white vinegar is made from the fermentation of grain alcohol (ethanol). This kind of alcohol doesn’t naturally contain many nutrients, so other ingredients such as yeast or phosphates may be added to kickstart the bacterial fermentation process. It is used in pickles, salads, sauces, cheesemaking and also used in different household chores etc.
Apple cider vinegar, or cider vinegar, is a vinegar made from fermented apple juice, and used in salad dressings, marinades, vinaigrettes, food preservatives, and chutneys. It is made by crushing apples, then squeezing out the juice. Bacteria and yeast are added to the liquid to start the alcoholic fermentation process, which converts the sugars to alcohol. In a second fermentation step, the alcohol is converted into vinegar by acetic-forming bacteria (Acetobacter species). Acetic acid and malic acid combine to give vinegar its sour taste.
Infections such as HIV, SARS-CoV2, E-bola, MRSA and E. coli have been shown to spread rapidly among humans, causing complications including sepsis accompanied by cytokine storms which can lead to multiple organ failure and fatalities. ACV is made from an alcoholic fermentation process of a combination of apples, sugar and yeast. The constituents include 5% acetic acid, mother of vinegar enzymes as well as potassium, magnesium and calcium. One of these ingredients acetic acid, has potent antimicrobial properties and has been shown to inhibit planktonic growth of biofilms consisting of A. baumannii and P. aeruginosa on burns. It has also been shown to inhibit yeast cell growth by causing mitochondrial and ribosomal degradation leading to apoptosis. One study in which diabetics were given ACV orally found that it increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as catalase and dismutase and glutathione peroxidase.
Apple cider vinegar has been proclaimed to have many different health benefits, including weight loss, laxative properties, lowering blood glucose levels in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and lowering the risk of heart diseases. It delayed gastric emptying. Acidity in the small intestine stimulates the sensors, causing the release of bicarbonates, which neutralize the acids and slow down gastric emptying. Studies showed a delayed gastric emptying rate(GER) causing a reduction in glucose and insulin responses to a starchy meal supplemented with acetic acid. It also significantly inhibited the activity of disaccharidases (sucrase, maltase, lactase, and trehalase) in Caco-2 cells. The antihyperglycemic effect of acetic acid may therefore be partially due to suppression of disaccharidase activity. This effects on disaccharidase activity might explains why vinegar does not affect the increase in blood glucose after the consumption of monosaccharide-containing beverages.
Studies suggested that acetic acid may affect the concentration of blood glucose and lipids by activation of the AMPK pathway. Acetic acid is a building block in the synthesis of acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA). During the synthesis of acetyl-CoA, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is consumed and adenosine monophosphate (AMP) is produced, increasing the AMP/ATP ratio and activating the AMPK pathway. The AMPK pathway mediates glucose uptake and free fatty acid oxidation in skeletal muscle and inhibits gluconeogenesis, glycolysis, lipogenesis, and cholesterol formation in the liver. These effects all result in decreased blood glucose and lipid levels, as well as increased insulin sensitivity. In addition, activation of the AMPK pathway might also improve insulin activity by increasing the blood flow in muscle and adipose tissue, thus enhancing insulin sensitivity in the tissues.
Besides improving insulin activity or sensitivity, it has been suggested that vinegar may act by improving beta cell function, thereby improving insulin secretion, and decreasing the postprandial glucose response. Acetic acid increases postprandial satiety and decreases energy intake by stabilizing postprandial blood glucose levels. Studies found that drinking 20 g AV with 5% acetic acid prior to a high glycemic load could reduce postprandial glycemia and weakly reduce energy intake for the remainder of the day.
AV has a high level of catechin and pyrogallol, compared to other vinegars. Catechin is found in grape vinegar (about 9 mg/100 mL) and AV (about 13 mg/100 mL), while pyrogallol seems only to be detectable in AV (about 37 mg/100 mL). For example, apple polyphenols have been shown to decrease serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels in healthy humans and increase serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in cholesterol-fed rats. AV and grape vinegar were the most effective in decreasing liver enzymes in serum (alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase), urea, and creatinine, suggesting that AV and grape vinegar improve liver and kidney function.
Acidic foods, especially drinks, activates stomach enzyme pepsin, thereby aggravating its potential to damage mucous membranes. As long as pepsin is inside the stomach, promoting its activity by lowering the pH might stimulate digestion. In patients with laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR)/ silent reflux, pepsin also resides outside the stomach. It is carried along with the acid reflux into the throat and airways, where it sticks to the mucous membranes and may even get absorbed by the cells. Swallowing acidic foods, such as apple cider vinegar, activates previously refluxed pepsin. This boosts the damaging potential of pepsin, causing more irritation of the mucous membranes in the airways. As a consequence, LPR symptoms get worse.
Apple cider vinegar might help with constipation. It contains pectin, which is a water-soluble fiber that improves overall digestion. It also contains malic acid and acetic acid, both of which are very digestion-friendly. Also ACV contains a small amount of magnesium, a mineral that helps promote regular bowel movements.
Nephrolithiasis is a common condition that affects 5% to 8.8% of the population in the world. Calcium oxalate (CaOx) is the most common crystal constituent of kidney stones. The principal bioactive component of vinegar is acetic acid, which is a short-chain fatty acid (SCFA). Acetate has been reported to be readily absorbed in the intestines, transported into the blood stream, and easily incorporated in tissues. Several studies reported that treatment with SCFAs, especially acetate, reduce kidney damage. Recent study revealed that that vinegar inhibits CaOx kidney stone formation likely through regulating urinary excretion of citrate and calcium in humans as well as in the animal as acetate could influence urinary citrate and calcium excretion to inhibit renal CaOx crystals formation. Citrate is a well-known inhibitor of stone formation. It directly inhibits spontaneous nucleation of calcium oxalate by combining with calcium ion to form a nondissociable but soluble complex, leading to less free calcium to bind with oxalate. It also hinders CaOx and calcium phosphate crystal growth, agglomeration, and aggregation.
Apple cider vinegar may help with bloating and digestive issues. Bloating is a buildup of gas in the stomach or intestines. It can be due to bacteria migrating to the small intestine, such as in small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), or eating foods that the body has trouble digesting or eating processed foods that are high in sodium or it can be due to IBS like constipation. ACV is naturally acidic, and so for people with low stomach acidity, using ACV may help raise stomach acid levels to aid digestion which can prevent prevent gas and bloating. ACV is also an antimicrobial substance, meaning it may help kill bacteria in the stomach or intestines. Excess bacteria or bacteria in the upper intestines release gases that may lead to bloating, so ACV may help with symptoms.
The digestion of starch is initiated in the mouth by salivary αamylase (HSA), which starts hydrolyzing starch molecules. This enzyme can carry on the amylolytic process in the stomach until it is inactivated by the increasing acidity, between pH 3 and 4. . Pancreatic α-amylase and brush-border enzymes then resume amylolysis in the small intestine, where glucose, the final product of starch digestion, is finally absorbed. The inhibition of digestive amylases can slow down starch digestion, thereby constituting an opportunity to delay the uptake of starch-derived glucose and improve postprandial glycemic responses. Recent study found that pairing starch-rich foods with an acidic food product could slow down starch digestion by premature acid inhibition of salivary αamylase (HSA). It showed that vinegar and lemon juice exhibited a very high inhibitory capacity on salivary αamylase, which ranged between 90% and 100% of inhibition. Therefore, it highlights that acidic foods like vinegar, lemon juice can improve glycemic response of foods.
