The radical monopoly of cars and its alternatives: Athens amidst other European metropolises.
AUTHOR: Orestis Paschalinas
Paper as a basis of a talk for the 7th Annual Meeting of the, Cycling Research Board 25–27 October 2023, Hosted by University of Wuppertal
Introduction, defining the geographical areas
The comparison in this research considered urban areas of over 1 million European citizens and added some metropolises from Asia and the USA. The definition of an urban area used here relied on national statistical agencies as references. It did not correspond fully with the Eurostat NUTS (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) standards.
Motorisation rates for cars that state members submit to Eurostat on a per NUTS 2 area definition differ from actual urban areas where people work and live and commute every day. Only 12 entities-areas that this research has used correspond to NUTS 2 Areas. The rest of more than 130 corresponds to a NUTS 3 (which Eurostat does not provide motorisation rates) or none of the NUTS 1,2,3 definitions.
The comparison has a population limit of 1 million. Metropolises over that limit were analysed. However, there are entries of sub-regions below the threshold that are part of a more extensive metropolitan area with at least 1 million citizens. There are numerous entries for the same metropolitan basis. For instance, Athens has three entries and Paris five with distinct surface areas, densities and populations.
Athens’ three entries are:
a) “Athens Central Sector” (NUTS 3 area, see the left map above), which is an area of 8 municipalities and around 1 million citizens 88 sq. km.
b) “Athens and Piraeus, Urban agglomeration of” (see the middle map above) with 40 municipalities and around 3 million citizens and 411 sq. km
c) Attica region (NUTS 2 area, see the right map above) with around 3.8 million and 3809 sq. km. that spans way beyond commuting belts.
Car Motorisation Rates Across 40 European Metropolises
Athens is leading the list in terms of car dependency in comparison to all European Metropolises. Only outside of Europe can one find a higher car density. The sparsely populated metropolitan areas of the USA (New York being the exception to the rule) have a higher rate of cars and SUVs per population than European cities. Although Athens tops the list in terms of cities, when it comes to country comparison, Greece has an average motorisation rate (see chart below, source: Eurostat). Poland, a car-importing country with lower purchasing power than car-exporting ones within the EU, has the highest rate with an outstanding increase of over-doubling its fleet in the past decade.
Next pages feature data plotted after collection and analysis on a city level instead of a country per surface area and per population.
Figure 2: Car Motorisation rates on areas from 30 km² to 180 km²
Figure 3: Car motorisation rate for areas from 180 km² to 1000 km²
Figure 4: Car motorisation rate for areas from 1000 km² to 6000 km²
Figure 5: Car Motorisation rates on areas from 6000 km² and over
Figure 6: Car Motorisation rates on areas from 0.4 million people to 1.1 million
Figure 7: Car Motorisation rates on cities-areas from 1 million people to 2 million
Figure 8: Car Motorisation rates on cities-areas from 2 million people to 5 mil
Figure 9: Car Motorisation rates on cities-areas from 3.5 million and above
Figure 10: Car motorisation rate in Cities-Areas of density 5000 people per sq.km. and above
Figure 11: Passenger Cars per km2 in Cities-Areas of 1.5 mil to 5 mil and at least 200 km2
Athens has a distinctively higher car ownership rate than the rest of Greece and its other regions. It is one of the few countries in the EU where the capital region is the most dependent on cars, whereas the opposite is the norm. In Western Europe, the capital metropolitan region usually has the most miniature rate of cars per population and people living in the country’s outer rural provinces have the highest. In theory, the explanation is straightforward. A citizen living in a big city would expect (and have the demand by moving to live there) to cover fewer distances and rely on denser public transportation than those living in outer provinces and rural areas where one has to cross large distances with no or scarce public transportation. However, that is not the case for Athens.
On a country level, Greece has an average car ownership rate per population in the EU, surpassing neighbouring countries like Turkey and Serbia. The metropolis of Athens makes a striking difference, not Greece as a whole.
Motorcycle Motorisation rates
The extreme scarcity of parking availability and high urban population density can result in higher ownership and usage of motorcycles, mopeds/scooters. That is often encountered in Asian metropolises but also witnessed in Athens. Athens surpasses all European cities for motorcycles per population. Regarding motorcycles and scooters/mopeds, Greece has the highest rate per population out of all European countries. All Mediterranean and southern European countries (including Italy, which would be in the minds of most people as the leader) that favour motorcycle usage due to their warm weather are behind Greece.
Outside of Europe, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Bangkok and Taipei are dominated by motorcycles more than Athens.
In terms of countries, only Taiwan, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand out of Asia and Uruguay out of Latin America have more motorcycles per 1000 people (see chart below:”Motorised two and three wheelers per thousand population by country, 2014–2018”, source : Bing-yu Chiu, ( 2023)). Greece out beats India, Japan, Italy (the latter two being famous scooter makers popular in Greece), and all other countries in all continents, ranking 1st in Europe and seventh worldwide.
This dependency can be attributed to the fact that cars are overrepresented in Athens, so the answer, on individualistic grounds of course, would be personal ownership of a motorcycle or a cheap scooter to bypass traffic congestion and the hassle of finding a parking spot. While they are indeed a partial answer to congestion for the one that rides them, that is, and they occupy less space than cars, they exacerbate other aspects of the social external cost of motorisation. They have been proven and documented as emitting in more significant quantities specific pollutants (not CO2) than cars per passenger, creating greater noise levels and, of course, having a more significant impact on road safety than any other means of transportation, even in cities with the best road infrastructure(Michael Hernandez et al..2019).
The below figures and rankings include only the Attica region (3.8 million people), as there are no estimates for the Athens — Piraeus agglomeration. French cities also are not shown, but given the national average, they certainly will not exceed Athens.
Figure 13: Motorcycle motorisation rate in cities-Areas of 1 million to 5 million
Combined (Cars+Motorcycles) Motorisation Rate
Adding cars and motorcycles/scooters for a combined motorisation rate of cities from 1 to 8 million, as expected, finds Athen’s larger area, Attica province, on top of the list. More than 1000 units
for 1000 people, it is followed by Prague, Warsaw and Rome when it comes to European cities.
Figure 14: Combined motorisation rate in cities-Areas of 1 million to 8 million people
Public Transport Density
Previous studies have established a correlation between transportation infrastructure and traffic congestion (Ali Enes Dingil et al.. 2018). The figures below examine the availability of public rail transport for Tram and Metro by the number of stops and stations for 18 metropolises besides Athens and the suburban rail ones that run across the metropolises. A sample of metropolises with the worst motorisation rates and those with the lighter ones were used.
Then, this was divided and projected per population.
Athens has a moderate length of Metro for its area. However, the worst ratio of stations per population, meaning it may span longer than other Metro systems, but its services are inadequate for the population of the metropolis, resulting in crowded metro cars and partial coverage.
The Athens Tram network length is profoundly partial, a miniature compared to Central Europe. It services only a fraction of the population and area of the metropolis, and its initial plan was not designed for urban local transit but to hastily satisfy demand for the Olympic Games of 2004. Considering that the number of tram stops might skew its actual service capacity, the metric of km of tram per 10 km2 of surface area was favoured. One city can have stops every 400 stops while not covering substantial parts of the metropolis, which can prove to be more important.
The suburban rail system of Athens is also scarce, having the lowest density of all cities in the selected data set.
The study included other modes of transport that in cities play a crucial role in transit, like city ferries in Stockholm and Amsterdam and funicular stations in Napoli. Buses were not included in this research.
A complete and fairer comparison would need to include the frequency of trains/trams and passengers per hour per direction/corridor capacity per mode of transport. However, this study used more straightforward sums, which are depicted below.
These were used in scatter plots to show correlation with axis X being the cars motorisation rate and axis Y in one figure being adding Metro + Suburban Stations + Funicular and City Ferry ports but excluding stops per 100,000 people and for the other figure all the above transit points plus the kilometres of length of the Tram network per 10 km2 of the city surface area.
Athens & Piraeus agglomeration resides on the bottom right corner of both graphs, having the lowest rail public transport density and the highest car dependency. On the other hand, in the top left corner, one can find Inner London, the municipality of Paris and the capital region of Brussels.
The stations were counted and collected if they fall within the metropolitan area. So, e.g., only the Metro stations within the municipality of Paris, not the whole Paris Metro, only the suburban rail stations within the Athens & Piraeus agglomeration area, etc. Tram stops were more straightforward to pinpoint as, in most cities, they fall within the centre of the metropolis (with some exceptions, e.g. Paris). However, suburban and central rail network stations had to be located within the area mentioned in all cases.
Figure 25: Average disposable income minus average rents in correlation to transport density
Pearson Correlation Coefficient Matrix
Cycling Lanes Network as an Alternative in Athens,
from theory in 2001 to current status
2001 was the first time that the Greek state (via the Ministry of Transport) commissioned professors (centred around the Sustainable Mobility Unit in the Technical University of Athens) to conduct a plan and examine a future adaptation of cycling by 17 Greek cities (Iossifidis (2014), p.347–348) including some limited routes for the city centre of Athens. This resulted in a cycling lane guide for municipalities being published in 2004.
By 2009, although no implementation and construction of lanes in Athens took place from 2001, another study was commissioned, but this time focused only on the metropolitan scale of Athens.
The idea was to imitate the London Mayor’s plan of 2008 (Ken Livingstone at the time) for 12 Cycle Superhighways within London (the Guardian, “City’s two-wheel transformation”, 9–2–2008). Indeed, with the help and suggestions of bicycle commuters in Athens who used roads already for their daily commute, a map of around 230 km routes came to fruition.
This network resulted in a paper (2012), a map (2011) and a suggested concrete proposal to policymakers. By 2014, the parliament voted this as part of the Urban Traffic Plan, attaining the status of a state Law. The map has been calculated to stretch 226 km, including numerous main avenues from and to the city centre of Athens across all directions.
Out of the above network, only one major route that ends near the city centre has been implemented. Completed in 2015 and expanded by 2016 with deficiencies and dangerous spots that, as of now, still need to be addressed.
This route, named the southern cycling axis, of around 7 km (9 km if you include a round segment in a park and a pedestrian route) is the only cycle route that spans more than one municipality within the Attica region (NUTS 2 area). This route was already publicly available as a technical plan (the one commissioned in 2001) by April 2003 (Vlastos, Milakis, Athanasopoulos, p.266 Το Ποδήλατο σε 17 Ελληνικές Πόλεις. Οδηγός Εκπόνησης Μελετών / The bicycle in 17 Greek Cities, a Guide to Technical Planning (2004)). It took more than 11 years for 6 km, and the rest was extended by 2016 for the official start date of a cultural centre (Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center) featuring a cycling lane. From the initial plan to implementation, we can conclude that it took 12 years for a 9 km cycling route (which is not 100% segregated cycling lanes).
Other local, disjointed, poorly designed, potentially corruption-ridden and maintained lanes from half a kilometre to 10 have been made mainly in the northern suburbs of the Attica region. Those are not part of the aforementioned metropolitan network, amounting to around 50 km.
The exceptional delay of the implementation of cycling lanes could be attributed to numerous factors but also to what has been displayed in the above sections of this study. An unprecedented car and motorcycle rate in Athens and its suburbs within the Attica region. The vicious cycle of inadequate public transport density leads people to own a car and a motorcycle or a moped to move around the city (Sarigiannis, (2000)).
This study uses some of the routes of the network of 2011 to highlight the feasibility of a cycling network. A comparison was made between the time one needs to cross them during rush hours and non-rush hours with a car, an e-bike and a conventional bicycle; the data set was supplemented when on-site calculations were not conducted via estimated routes from Google Maps, City Mapper and bikemap.
Time and efficiency of cycling vs car on the avenues of the proposed Athens cycling network (2011)
A critique of ever-growing speed, energy consumption and the industry of transportation by the aspect of social inclusion and equity not only on environmental grounds has been laid out by Ivan Illich’s monumental essay “Energy and Equity” almost half a century ago. He argues for a low top speed for all motorised vehicles leaning to 25 km/h (Illich (2019), Greek edition, p.21) or one that does not surpass that of an old bicycle (p.52). He adds in public discourse the importance of hidden costs of transit systems that solely evolve around speed, be it via private car or public transport (p.31., p.40 — p.41), although favouring the latter as a more suitable potential means to limit top speed (p.41). He reveals that when the oft-quoted phrase “time is money” is taken as a mantra for urban planning, “equity and vehicular speed correlate inversely” (p.33). In essence, the faster the cars, the more inequality, social exclusion, and degradation a city has. It is an exclusion by economic means and impacts in the end space and time (although claiming to address it) for the majority.
Below, I include a comparison between the time one takes to cross avenues of Athens laid out to be part of the network of cycling lanes. Only 4% of it has been implemented and exists on the roads 12 years after the plan.
Far from refuting the relevance of Illich’s thesis, the purpose is to make reality more transparent for Athens. A situation is better weighed when all aspects are revealed in the open. Data can help citizens and policymakers to weigh and decide if the social cost of even more energy consumption and higher speed for automobiles for an unreliable frequency of a few minutes less in traffic is worth the hidden costs that not only the individual but the whole society pays.
Thirteen routes have been selected containing avenues from start to finish in different directions (towards the city centre and out of it) that add up to more than 95 km. The average of each route is 7.4 km per route, and some have a demanding elevation gain of more than 100 metres, given that Athens is not a flat city. 7.4 km is beyond the 6.8 km standard that cyclists are willing to commute, according to studies determined mainly in flat cities of the Netherlands and Belgium (Oldenziel (2016), et al., p.196). It is less than the 8.9km for e-bikes taken from the same source. It must be mentioned that a typical commute trip in Athens will not include someone starting from the exact starting point of a motorcar avenue of 2–3 or even six car lanes and finishing at the end of the avenue. It will likely include using a portion of it, starting from a neighbourhood and finishing on another more minor road. In the latter situations and within a specific range of km and elevation gain, a bicycle, a plain one, not an e-bike, is even quicker, as I depict on the first diagram of a mere 5km route.
Car estimates were taken from Google Maps on rush hour time on different days and more than ten times. All calculations plotted do not include time for parking, which includes a designated paid (or not) spot far away from one’s final destination (meaning you have to walk, so extra minutes would be added) or just illegal parking (which is also a norm in Athens) but finding the place to do it. The time to find a parking spot varies; it could be from 2 to 5 to 15 minutes. Bicycle elapsed time was either calculated on-site or by City mapper and Bikemap estimates.
Figure 26
A normal route of 5 km combining main avenues usage and smaller one-way streets that start from a suburb and end in the city will likely be faster with a conventional ) and an e-bike than a car during rush hours. In the above example, 18 minutes and 20.5 minutes (respectively) against 27 with a car without including time to find a parking spot and walk from there. Public transportation is even slower and most likely a more uncomfortable experience packed during rush hours. On the other hand, an empty city centre and free car lanes make it faster for the car.
If one makes this comparison only on avenues rather than one-way streets or roads in the residential suburbs, this excludes all the time from residential places and to them. This scenario has ideal circumstances for a car, thus skewing the results in favour of the automobile. If we adjust the differences noted via the routes, a 30-minute trip by car will give an average of +3.3 more minutes with an e-bike during rush hour and +16.7 minutes with a conventional bicycle. In a non-rush hour, +6.1 minutes with an e-bike and +47.2 with a conventional. There is strong evidence from the data collection that an e-bike and a conventional bicycle are quicker in a radius of at least 5 km to the city centre, sweatless when it comes to an e-bike. The longer the distance on a congestion-free avenue, the longer the difference. If one can find a free avenue to run with his car for 30 minutes, indeed, one can expect more than an hour and a quarter for a conventional bicycle to cross the same distance. This option is in no way something to be avoided when laying out roads in Athens. On the contrary, it is what was perceived as urban planning in the past decades. It is still part of the political discourse as a solution to traffic congestion: creating even more through traffic and broader lanes for avenues to make cars faster.
Figure 27
Figure 28
Conclusions
- Athens is one of the most dense cities in Europe (it is not population or surface area that makes it stand out)
Nowhere else in Europe (as in EU + western Europe outside of EU) besides London and Paris do 3 million live in such a condensed manner with such a density. Madrid and Barcelona come close but only in some areas compared. The Athens metropolitan area is the 3rd most condensed metropolis in Europe.
Out of the 59 entries of metropolis areas that are of 500.000 (as sub-region of a larger one) up until 2.000.000 only two areas have a greater density from the Athens, Central Sector of with its almost 1 million residents: Almendra central Madrid and Municipi Barcelona.
Moreover, when one goes to the range between 2 million to 10 million out of the 37 regions, only three are denser than the 3 million of the Athens and Piraeus, Urban agglomeration:
The Municipality/Commune of Paris, Inner London and the Comarca of Barcelones.
If one compares based on the surface area, e.g. over 150 km2 the Athens and Piraeus, Urban agglomeration (411 km2) is the 4th most densely populated behind London (Inner), Paris Metropole, Milano Comune, 5th if you include non-European metropolises like Seoul City.
Athens is not out of the ordinary regarding its population; it has 15 (13 if you exclude Moscow-St. Petersburg) metropolises ahead of her and almost 50 trailing her. So it’s in the second top quarter.
Athens is typical in terms of its surface area. Its 411 km2, where the 3 million live, is a relatively small area for such a population, with more than 55 metropolitan areas exceeding it.
Athens’ agglomeration of 3 million people in 40 municipalities and 411 sq. km has these rankings:
#3 in terms of density (or fifth, depending on how you compare it with Barcelona and Madrid)
#15 in terms of population
#58 in terms of surface area
This density means :
- The debate on whether a compact city reduces motorisation rates does not apply to Athens because it is already very densely populated compared to European standards, not only in the central section but across its 40 municipalities that span more than 400 square kilometres. It is not a textbook case study of a non-compact city in terms of human density. Athens is not an American city that suffers from a long-distance suburban sprawl in any way compared to other European megapolises, let alone American ones. It does not have unthinkable distances that in other cities are not covered by a Metro, a Suburban, or even a Tram network.
- With such a population density, any policy-making, even the most genuinely committed to sustainable mobility, if it starts to change, the city will have to come to terms with the extreme challenge of less space to allocate and use for pedestrian walks, cycle lanes and green spaces even if cars are reduced or gone altogether. Currently, the situation stands on the complete opposite of the above scenario; Athens has both a very dense human-wise and car/motorcycle-wise area. Thus, the detrimentally more evident perception it gives to its residents of a hostile city to any pedestrian or non-motorist in general.
- Athens is the most car-dependent megapolis in Europe, with 1 million people and above.
Compared to similar-sized areas, the Central sector of Athens, Athens-Piraeus agglomeration and Attica region exceed in their numbers of cars per 1000 people, Palermo and Catania of Sicily and Warsaw are following, only American metropolises have a more dense rate like Oklahoma City.
Compared to similar populations, the Central sector of Athens comes second or third depending on the upper limit of the data set, with Catania of Sicily and Warsaw of Poland taking first or second position, Athens-Piraeus agglomeration first, and Attica region.
Athens also has the most cars per square kilometre compared to similarly sized areas, meaning they take more space out of the city, second is Bucharest and third is Warsaw. Amsterdam and Zurich are on the lowest side.
- Athens and Greece are the most motorcycle-dependent megapolis and country respectively in Europe.
The Attica province exceeds all regions from 1 to 5 million people, with 191 motorcycles/scooters for every 1000 people, with Catania of Sicily coming up next with 168.
- The Athens metropolitan area is the most motorised-dependent (cars-motorcycles-scooters) of over 1 million out of all European cities.
With 1003 units for 1000 people, Attica province is #1, with Prague being second (814) and Warsaw following (802). Inner London has the lowest.
- Athens has one of the least dense public (rail) transport networks compared with some European cities as a combination of Metro-Suburban Rail-Tram availability.
Comparing 17 city areas, Athens comes last in the number of Metro/Suburban stations and Tram stops per population. It also comes last when one adds stations and stops plus the kilometres of Tram network per sq km2. The ones having the best sum are Inner London, the Paris municipality and the Brussels Capital region. Eastern and Central European cities with a high degree of motorisation have many Tram stops (Bucharest, Warsaw, Prague) but not a high combination of all rail modes of transport.
- The motorisation rate in EU large cities is inversely correlated with public (rail) transport density. The denser the network, the fewer cars the city has.
A -0533 correlation coefficient was found.
The aforementioned 17 cities (with London having two entries) were used.
- The motorisation rate in the EU is inversely correlated with purchasing power. The richer the average citizen of Europe, the fewer cars the city he lives in has. Poorer cities have more cars within the EU and the oldest fleet of cars as well.
An average take-home salary was used, and then an average one-bedroom rent for each city was deducted inside and outside the city centre. Thirty-nine cities were taken as a data set. A correlation coefficient of -525 was found. However, there are exceptions outside of the EU, poor cities like Belgrad, Moscow and St.Petersburg have a lower motorisation rate, whereas prosperous cities in the US have an extremely high rate, as well as Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Asia has a different story, with Japanese metropolises and Seoul having very low to median car motorisation rates despite being amongst the world’s most famous car-producing countries. The correlation is strong when a relative affluence threshold exists, like the one a country within the EU has compared to other parts of the world. For instance, although Bulgaria is considered a poor country within the EU, Sofia has one of the highest rates of car motorisation. In contrast, neighbouring Serbia’s Belgrad has one of the lowest. Most likely, this threshold guarantees the availability of cars, be they used, old, or even damaged ones en masse imported from the car-producing countries of the EU.
- Public (rail) transport density in the EU positively correlates with the average citizen’s purchasing power. The richer the EU citizen, chances are his city will have a dense public transportation network. European cities tend to validate the motto, “An advanced city is not one where the poor own a car, but one where the rich use public transport.”
The 17 cities were used as a data set, having a correlation coefficient of 0.621.
- For more than 20 years of city planning proposals in Athens, only one cross-municipal route stretches around 9km. This constitutes a mere 4% of a network plan that has been proposed for more than a decade. Maintaining this construction rate will take Athens centuries to complete the proposed network.
- Within a radius of 5km from the city centre, on avenues of the proposed metropolitan cycling network, an e-bike and a conventional bicycle are quicker than a car during rush hours.
- Even for a car trip of 30 minutes during rush hour, an e-bike has a negligible difference of around 3 extra minutes. A conventional one has 15 extra minutes without calculating parking time.
- A cycling lane network covering the metropolitan area of Athens can substitute transit routes to and from workplaces during rush hour quicker for distances of 5 km and in similar (or even quicker) time for those between 5 to 7 km, if one calculates parking time.
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Data sources:
For Greece-Athens:
For population:
Greek Statistical Authority, Residential Population Census Results, 2021, published 3–17–2023 / Ελληνική Στατιστική Αρχή, Αποτελέσματα Απογραφής Πληθυσμού Κατοικιών, 2021, δημοσίευση 17–3–2023
https://elstat-outsourcers.statistics.gr/Census2022_GR.pdf
For cars and vehicles*:
* the 2021 population and the NUTS 2 Area (=Attiki Region) number of cars and motorcycles was used. That number (a bit more than 3 million private cars) is the official contribution to the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) database per country, and coincides with the Eurostat database per country and NUTS 2 areas. From that number an estimate was done for the Athens-Piraeus agglomeration of the 40 municipalities and almost 3 million residents where almost 80% of the population of Attiki live. By using the aforementioned drill down of percentages of population per sub-regional unit (Περιφερειακή Ενότητα) / NUTS 3 areas ,also the percentages obtained by Maniotis (2021) for his thesis by the Greek Statistical Authority and an older survey of 2011. A number of 2.505.858 cars for the agglomeration was calculated which is almost identical (2,5 to 2.6 million) to what politicians and officials responsible vehicle traffic in Athens use and mention when they talk about congestion and circulation within Athens-Attiki (see Kimon Logothetis, Kostas Chalkiadakis etc.). One can make the reasonable conclusion that the rest of around half a million cars registered in Attiki are spread outside the metropolitan agglomeration of Athens and its port Piraeus given that Attiki’s geographical region includes even islands that are more than 6 hours away by ferry and hardly could anyone self-identify of living “within Athens metropolis” for such cases. A similar methodology was used for the Athens Central Sector of the most central 8 municipalities and its almost 1 million residents, amounting to 744.014 cars. Motorcycle/scooter number was only used for Attiki (NUTS 2) region.
Ελληνική Στατιστική Αρχή, Στόλος Οχημάτων (2021),(2022), Αυτοκίνητα και μοτοσυκλέτες που βρίσκονται στην κυκλοφορία κατά κατηγορία, χρήση και νομό στην Ελλάδα /
Hellenic Statistical Authority, Motor vehicles in operation, by category and use (2021,2022)
https://www.statistics.gr/el/statistics/-/publication/SME18/2022
Γεώργιος Μανιώτης, Καταγραφή στόλου οχημάτων στην Αττική και η συμβολή τους στην ατμοσφαιρική ρύπανση, published xx-07–2021 / Georgios Maniotis, thesis, Vehicle fleet registration in Attica and their contribution to air pollution, published xx-07–2021
(especially the quote of another report by ΕΛΣΤΑΤ / Greek Statistical Authority used in this thesis that provides percentages of allocation of cars per sub-regional unit (Περιφερειακή Ενότητα-NUTS 3 areas) although under-reporting as a sum the percentages are indicative:
Οχήματα ευρισκόμενα σε κυκλοφορία στις 31/12/18 με έτος πρώτης κυκλοφορίας το 1980 και μετά , ανά Περιφερειακή Ενότητα και κυλινδρισμό (2019) / Vehicles in circulation on 31/12/18 with year of first release in 1980 and later, by Regional Unit and engine capacity (2019)
Anastasis Galanis, Interview of Traffic Management & Road Safety Advisor of the Attica Region, Kimon Logothetis / Αναστάσης Γαλάνης, Συνέντευξη του Σύμβουλου Διαχείρισης Κυκλοφορίας & Οδικής Ασφάλειας της Περιφέρειας Αττικής, Κίμων Λογοθέτης 26–06–2023
https://www.carandmotor.gr/nea/boyliazoyn-dromoi-athinas-erga-telos-kykloforiako-proteyoysa
Also Kimon Logothetis repeating in another interview the “more than 2.5 million” of cars in Attica quoting as a research result of the Ministry of Transport, 17–5–2022
https://www.iefimerida.gr/ellada/giati-ayxithike-dramatika-kinisi-athina-kifisos
Kimon Logothetis, mentioning that in Attiki 2.6 million of vehicles are in traffic in regards to congestion. 20–8–2023
Κώστας Χαλκιαδάκης, Πόσα αυτοκίνητα κυκλοφορούν στην Αθήνα; 21–06–2022 / Kostas Chalkiadakis, How many cars are in circulation in Athens? 21–06–2022
https://www.carzine.gr/posa-autokinita-kikloforoun-stin-athina/
Γιώργος Γιαννής, Αντώνης Χαζίρης κ.α., (2023), Αθήνα : Από την αστική ανθεκτικότητα στη βιώσιμη κινητικότητα, επιστημονική ημερίδα στις 9/3/2022 από τον τομέα Πολεοδομίας και Χωροταξίας της Σχολής Αρχιτεκτόνων Μηχανικών του ΕΜΠ (σελίδα 33) , εκδόσεις Σάκκουλα / Giorgos Giannis, Antonis Haziris et al., (2023), Athens: From urban resilience to sustainable mobility, scientific conference on 9/3/2022 from the Department of Urban Planning and Spatial Planning of the School of Architecture of NTUA (page 33) Sakkoula publications
For UK cities:
Department for Transport and Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency, Vehicle Licensing Statistic Data Tables
Published 24 May 2022, Last updated, 16 August 2023 https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-data-sets/vehicle-licensing-statistics-data-tables
James Potts, Which London Borough has the most TfL stations?, February 12, 2023*
https://jamespottsblog.wordpress.com/2023/02/12/which-london-borough-has-the-most-tfl-stations/
*I enriched James Potts’ data set from my side with all the Regional and train stations per borough (c2c, Chiltern Railways, Great Northern, Great Western Railway, Greater Anglia, Heathrow Express Network Rail Network Rail/Eurostar, South Western Railway, Southeastern, Southern Thameslink etc). Open street maps and Google Maps were also used to determine stations within defined boundaries that were researched.
For French cities:
4 geographical area definitions are used, taken by their official national ministries and statistics bureau: AAV, UU, Metropole, Commune with most of the cases a descending order of size.
AAV stands for Aire d’attraction des villes, more info can be found here:
https://www.insee.fr/fr/metadonnees/definition/c2173
UU stands for Unité urbaine, more info can be found here:
https://www.insee.fr/fr/metadonnees/definition/c1501
For population statistics:
Insee, Statistiques Locales database e.g.
https://statistiques-locales.insee.fr/#bbox=438629,5826354,177999,118937&c=indicator&i=pop_legales.popmun&s=2020&t=A01&view=map12
E.g.
https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1405599?geo=AAV2020-001
For car statistics:
Ministère de la Transition écologique et de la Cohésion des territoires, Données sur le parc automobile français au 1er janvier 2021 , Published on 12–08–2021
For Spanish cities:
For population statistics:
Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Cifras oficiales de población de los municipios españoles en aplicación de la Ley de Bases del Régimen Local (Art. 17), 2022
https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=2861
For cars, and motorcycle statistics:
Observatorio del Transporte y la Logística en España, Ministerio de Transportes, Movilidad y Agenda Urbana, Movilidad urbana y metropolitana, 4.1 Demanda y distribución modal Accessed 18–10–2023
https://observatoriotransporte.mitma.gob.es/monografico/movilidad_ciudades_sxxi/4relevancia-de-la-movilidadmetropolitana/41-demanda-y-distribucion-modal#anotacion_35
Dirección General de Tráfico, Parque de vehículos — Tablas estadísticas 2022, Published 28–04–2023
Dirección General de Tráfico. Ministerio del Interior, Parque nacional de vehículos por comunidad autónoma, provincia, tipo de vehículo y tipo de carburante, Published xx-10–2022
https://apps.fomento.gob.es/bdotle/visorBDpop.aspx?i=396
For Valencia statistics:
Ajuntament de València, Recull Estadístic de la Ciutat de València 2022, published 30–12–2022
https://www.valencia.es/val/estadistica/dades-basiques
For Barcelona statistics:
Institut d’Estadística de Catalunya, Parc de vehicles, per tipus, 2022, https://www.idescat.cat/pub/?id=parcc&n=291&by=prov
https://www.idescat.cat/pub/?id=parcc&n=291&by=at
Published 28–09–2023
For German cities:
Statistischen Ämter des Bundes und der Länder, Regionalatlas Deutschland 2022, database:
E.g. https://regionalatlas.statistikportal.de/?BL=DE&TCode=AI013-1&ICode=AI1301
Information und Technik Nordrhein-Westfalen, Pkw und Pkw-Dichte in Nordrhein-Westfalen 2012 und 2020,
https://www.it.nrw/sites/default/files/itnrw_presse/30_21.pdf
Statistische Bundesamt (Destatis), Pkw-Dichte im Jahr 2021 auf Rekordhoch, Pressemitteilung Nr. N 058 vom 15. September 2022
https://www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2022/09/PD22_N058_51.html
Kfz-Serviceportal, Wissenswertes rund um das Kfz, published 2016
https://kfz-serviceportal.de/deutschland/
For Berlin:
Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg, Kraftfahrzeugbestand 2022 Berlin, Motorisierungsgrad gesunken, published 03–04–2023
https://www.statistik-berlin-brandenburg.de/076-2023
Tagesspiegel, Autokarte Berlin, In diesen Kiezen gibt es die meisten Autos,
published 04–07–2023
https://interaktiv.tagesspiegel.de/lab/autokarte-berlin-in-diesen-kiezen-gibt-es-die-meisten-autos/
For Bavaria-Munich:
Statistisches Amt München, Indikatoren Atlas 2022 database e.g.
https://www.mstatistik-muenchen.de/indikatorenatlas/atlas.html?indicator=i244&date=2021
Statistisches Amt München,
a)Statistische Daten zum Thema Verkehr in München 2022
https://stadt.muenchen.de/infos/statistik-verkehr.html
b)Kraftfahrzeugbestand 1)2020–2022 nach Fahrzeugtyp
https://stadt.muenchen.de/dam/jcr:8be559ce-8285-4212-b78c-51637334b79c/jt230703.pdf
c) Personenkraftwagenbestand am 31.12.2022 nach Nutzungsart in den Stadtbezirken
https://stadt.muenchen.de/dam/jcr:08c1aecc-5191-4824-9f80-1c8c381c47e1/jt230705.pdf
Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik, Statistisches Jahrbuch für Bayern 2020,
Verkehr — Kraftfahrzeugbestand und -dichte am 1. Januar 2020
https://www.regierung.mittelfranken.bayern.de/mam/regierungsbezirk_mittelfranken/mittelfranken_in_zahlen/11_01_2020.pdf
For Cologne:
Stadt Köln, Amt für Stadtentwicklung und Statistik, Kraftfahrzeuge in Köln 2022, published xx.03.2023
For Polish cities:
Główny Urząd Statystyczny — Bank Danych Lokalnych, official statistics database 2022
https://bdl.stat.gov.pl/bdl/dane/podgrup/wymiary
Articles related to the subject of motorisation:
Maciej Gis, Polska stoi w korkach. Miasta mają wciąż absurdalne pomysły, 23–09–2021
https://moto.rp.pl/na-drodze/art18946251-polska-stoi-w-korkach-miasta-maja-wciaz-absurdalne-pomysly
Zbigniew Bartuś, W Krakowie jest „za dużo samochodów”. Twierdzi tak 62 proc. ankietowanych krakowian. Mamy dwa razy więcej aut na głowę niż Berlin i Wiedeń, Dziennik Polski, 16–9–2021
Maciej Fijak, Polska liderem niechlubnego rankingu [DANE], published 9–6–2023
https://smoglab.pl/samochody-w-polsce-lider-eu/
Notable mention of a book that touches upon the subject of car dependency in Poland:
https://wydawnictwo.krytykapolityczna.pl/autoholizm-marta-zakowska-1119
For Dutch cities:
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, Cijfers op de kaart, (2022) database e.g. :
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, Motorvoertuigenpark; inwoners, type, regio, 1 januari, 1990–2022 database
https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/nl/dataset/7374HVV/table?fromstatweb
For mopeds and scooters:
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, (2023), Hoeveel bromfietsen en snorfietsen zijn er in Nederland?
For population:
NL:
a) Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, Inwoners per gemeente (2023), database:
https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/visualisaties/dashboard-bevolking/regionaal/inwoners
Amsterdam:
b) Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, Aantal inwoners MRA gestegen in 2022, groei in 29 van de 30 gemeenten
For Amsterdam car traffic and per district statistics:
Gemeente Amsterdam, Monitor Autoluw Indicatoren 2019, published 01.xx.2021
https://openresearch.amsterdam/image/2021/3/23/monitor_autoluw_indicatoren_2019.pdf
For Italian cities:
Alessandro Vasserot, Automobile Club D’Italia, Parco Circolante 2022, Onda Verde n.47, Numero 47: maggio — giugno 2023, (La rivista ACI per la mobilità sostenibile.), p.66–67
https://issuu.com/aci-it/docs/ondaverde-047
Ufficio metropolitano di Statistica, Serena Pascucci, Laura Papacci per grafici/ tabelle (Città metropolitana di Roma Capitale) Roberto Cipollone (Roma Capitale), Rapporto statistico sull’area metropolitana romana 2019.
https://www.comune.roma.it/web-resources/cms/documents/12_Mobilita_2019_Rapporto.pdf
Marco Talluri, Un tasso di motorizzazione elevatissimo, ed un parco auto ancora molto inquinante, published 6–6–2022
https://ambientenonsolo.com/un-tasso-di-motorizzazione-elevatissimo-ed-un-parco-auto-ancora-molto-inquinante/
Città Metropolitane a Confronto, Mobilita Veicoli database (2021):
http://inumeridibolognametropolitana.it/cittametropolitaneconfronto/mobilita/veicoli
Go Mobility, Datamobility Report 2023, La Mobilità Delle 14 Città Metropolitane D’Italia
https://datamobility.it/download-datamobility-report-2023/
Kyoto Club — CNR — IIA , 6th Rapporto Mobilitaria 2023, Mobilità 2030: Aria Pulita Decarbonizzazione E Spazi Sicuri Nelle Grandi Città Italiane
https://www.kyotoclub.org/wp-content/uploads/rapporto_mobilitaria_2023.pdf
For population:
Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, Bilancio demografico mensile, e popolazione residente per sesso, anno 2023
https://demo.istat.it/app/?l=it&a=2023&i=D7B
For Ireland, Dublin:
Central Statistics Office, Open Data Platform, Road Traffic Volumes (2021)
For Swedish cities:
Sveriges officiella statistik, Transporter och kommunikationer, Fordon i län och kommun vid årsskiftet 2022 published 16–02–2023
https://www.scb.se/hitta-statistik/statistik-efter-amne/transporter-och-kommunikationer/vagtrafik/fordon/
https://www.scb.se/hitta-statistik/statistik-efter-amne/transporter-och-kommunikationer/vagtrafik/fordon/pong/tabell-och-diagram/fordon-i-lan-och-kommun-vid-arsskiftet/
For Stockholm:
Stockholms stad, Miljöbarometern, Published 16–02–2023
https://miljobarometern.stockholm.se/trafik/motorfordon/bilinnehav/
For Finland-Helsinki:
Research and statistical information from Helsinki, Autokanta (2021)
For Norway-Oslo:
Statistik sentralbyrå, Statistikkbanken, Bilparken (2022) database
https://www.ssb.no/statbank/table/07849
For Denmark-Copenhagen:
Danmarks Statistik, database 2023
https://www.statistikbanken.dk/statbank5a/default.asp?w=1280
Københavns Kommune, Mobilitets-redegørelse (2021)
For Austria- Vienna:
Statistik Austria, Kfz-Bestand, published 24–02–2023
https://www.statistik.at/statistiken/tourismus-und-verkehr/fahrzeuge/kfz-bestand
Stadt Wien | Wirtschaft, Arbeit und Statistik, Statistischen Jahrbuch der Stadt Wien, Kraftfahrzeuge — Statistiken 2021
https://www.wien.gv.at/statistik/verkehr-wohnen/kfz/
Articles on Vienna:
Michael J. Payer,Anzahl der autofreien Haushalte in Wien gestiegen, Published 19–09–2022
For Romania-Bucuresti:
Secretariatul General al Guvernului, Parc auto Romania (se actualizeaza anual, pana la 31 martie), Situația cuprinde parcul auto la 31.12.2022
https://data.gov.ro/dataset/parc-auto-romania
For Hungary-Budapest:
Hungarian Central Statistical Office, 6.4.6.2. Road vehicle fleet, 31 December (2020)
https://www.ksh.hu/docs/eng/xstadat/xstadat_annual/i_ode006c.html
For Bulgaria-Sofia:
Plamen Georgiev, 694 cars per 1000 people in Sofia, their total number is 878 thousand. The average age of passenger cars is 18 years, and their number has increased by 200,000 in 10 years, published 21–11–2022
https://carmarket.bg/drugi/694-koli-na-1000-choveka-v-sofiia-obshtiiat-im-broj-e-878-hiliadi-5588
For Serbia-Belgrad:
Републички завод за статистику,Региони у Републици Србији 2019, published 21–12–2020
https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G2020/pdf/G202026001.pdf
Tehnički-pregled, Broj vozila u Beogradu za koje je urađen tehnički pregled u 2021-oj, Accessed xx.10–2023
https://tehnicki-pregled.rs/treba-da-znate/18-broj-vozila-u-beogradu
Aleksandar Vučić, U Beogradu dvostruko više automobila nego pre 10 godina, Predsednik Srbije o broju automobila u Srbiji. (TV Prva, 17.1.2020. godine) Published: 27–1–2020
https://www.istinomer.rs/izjava/u-beogradu-dvostruko-vise-automobila-nego-pre-10-godina/
Makroekonomija.org, аутомобила на 100 становника, Accessed xx.10–2023
For Croatia-Zagreb:
Državni zavod za statistiku, Croatian Bureau of Statistics, Transport — Pregled Po Županijama,Transport — review by Counties(2022),
https://podaci.dzs.hr/media/waybgd4r/transport-pregled-po-zupanijama.xlsx
For population (2022):
https://podaci.dzs.hr/media/ueajlqe5/stanovnistvo-pregled-po-zupanijama.xlsx
For Portugal-Lisbon:
Marktest Grupo, Um quarto dos automóveis seguros em 13 concelhos, published 29–08–2023
https://www.marktest.com/wap/a/n/id~2a09.aspx
Mais de 8 milhões de automóveis seguros, 16–8–2022
https://www.marktest.com/wap/a/n/id~28ee.aspx
For population:
Pordata, O seu município em números! (2021), accessed xx.10.2023
https://www.pordata.pt/municipios/quadro+resumo/area+metropolitana+de+lisboa+(nuts+ii)-822280
https://www.pordata.pt/db/portugal/ambiente+de+consulta/tabela
For Czech Republic-Prague:
Ministerstvo dopravy, Registr vozidel, Výdej dat — výběr vozidel (database of Ministry of Transport) (2022), accessed xx.10.2023
https://www.dataovozidlech.cz/vydej
Technické správy komunikací, Ročenka Dopravy 2022
https://www.tsk-praha.cz/static/udi-rocenka-2022-cz.pdf
2021: https://www.tsk-praha.cz/static/udi-rocenka-2021-cz.pdf
Barbora Novotná, Data: Praha má dvakrát víc aut na obyvatele než Vídeň či Berlín. A jsou stará, 01–08–2022
Jan Stránsky, Nestavte další silnice ani tunely. Cesta Česka z dopravní krize vede jinudy, 13–06–2022
For Belgium-Brussels:
Thomas Ermans & Amandine Henry, Brussels Instituut voor Statistiek en Analyse, Focus NR. 53, Waar zijn de auto’s? De geografie van het autobezit van de huishoudens in Brussel en onmiddellijke rand
https://bisa.brussels/sites/default/files/publication/documents/Focus-53_NL.pdf
Statbel, the Belgian statistical office, Historische daling van het aantal wagens in België, Published 14–09–2020
https://statbel.fgov.be/nl/nieuws/historische-daling-van-het-aantal-wagens-belgie
Statbel, the Belgian statistical office,Elektrische wagens in 2023 met 93,6% gestegen
https://statbel.fgov.be/nl/themas/mobiliteit/verkeer/voertuigenpark
For population:
Statbel, the Belgian statistical office, Structure de la population (2022)
https://statbel.fgov.be/fr/themes/population/structure-de-la-population#figures
For Japanese cities:
Automobile Inspection & Registration Information Association, (2019), accessed xx.10.2023
https://stats-japan.com/t/kiji/10786
https://www.airia.or.jp/publish/statistics/number.html
https://www.airia.or.jp/publish/statistics/ub83el00000000wo-att/01_2.pdf
For Russia:
Autostat, В России на каждую 1000 человек приходится в среднем 315 автомобилей/In Russia, for every 1000 people there are an average of 315 cars, 02–05–2023
https://www.autostat.ru/infographics/54512/
https://www.autostat.ru/research/product/438/
Vedomosti, В Петербурге обеспеченность автомобилями выше, чем в Москве/In St. Petersburg the provision of cars is higher than in Moscow, published 12–06–2021
For Israel-Tel Aviv:
Central Bureau of Statistics, Motor vehicles in Israel in 2022, published 02–04–2023
Central Bureau of Statistics, Motor Vehicles in Israel in 2020, published 29–04–2021
https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2021/145/27_21_145b.pdf
For S.Korea-Seoul:
Seoul Metropolitan Government, Car registration status, updated: 11–04–2023
https://news.seoul.go.kr/traffic/archives/341
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Statistics on vehicle registration in Seoul, last modified date 15.04.2022
https://data.seoul.go.kr/dataList/255/S/2/datasetView.do
Ecofocus, Seoul City conducts statistical analysis of cumulative vehicle registration status in 2021 in Seoul, 26.01.2022
Kim Doo-il, Ajunews, The number of registered cars in Seoul reached 3.18 million, a 31.7% increase in eco-friendly cars, 24–01–2022
https://www.ajunews.com/view/20220124104334162
For South Africa:
South African Market Insights, South Africa by the numbers, Category: Statistics and economics
Published:19–06–2019
https://www.southafricanmi.com/sa-by-numbers.html
For Switzerland-Zurich:
Bundesamt für Statistik, Sektion Mobilität, Strassenfahrzeuge — Bestand, Motorisierungsgrad, (2022)
For Turkey-Istanbul:
Turkish Statistical Institute, Road Motor Vehicles December 2021, (Table-2 The number of road motor vehicles by province), published 26–01–2022
https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Road-Motor-Vehicles-December-2021-45703&dil=2
For USA:
United States Census Bureau, Why We Ask Questions About…Vehicles Available
https://www.census.gov/acs/www/about/why-we-ask-each-question/vehicles/
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Highway Policy Information, State Motor-Vehicle Registrations — 2020
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2020/mv1.cfm
For New York:
Charles Komanoff, Komanoff Dissects New York City’s Car Baby Boom, published 19–04–2023
https://nyc.streetsblog.org/2023/04/19/komanoff-dissects-new-york-citys-car-baby-boom
For California:
Department of Motor Vehicles, Vehicles Registered By County (2022)
For trucks that are in reality private cars in US:
Andrew Van Dam, The real reason trucks have taken over U.S. roadways, published 07–04–2023,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/04/07/trucks-outnumber-cars/
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Dimitris Milakis, Konstantinos Athanasopoulos, Evangelos Vafeiadis, Konstantinos Vasileiadis, Thanos Vlastos, (2012). Planning of the Athens Metropolitan Cycle Network using Participative Multicriteria Gis Analysis, “Σχεδιασμός του μητροπολιτικού δικτύου ποδηλάτου της Αθήνας χρησιμοποιώντας συμμετοχική πολυκριτηριακή ανάλυση και Γεωγραφικά Συστήματα Πληροφοριών”, Procedia — Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 48, pp. 816–826.
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