“If you can keep your head when all about you /Are losing theirs… / Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it”
— “If” by Rudyard Kipling
Composure. Poise. Being “clutch”. It’s described in countless ways, but at its core, refers to the ability to execute successfully under pressure. This unique and highly sought after ability is characteristic of the best performers in their field. By tapping into this other side of performance, it allows them to really separate themselves from everyone else.
Luckily, for those of us not blessed with such a steely disposition, the use of psychological interventions has been shown to improve performance in athletes (Brown & Fletcher, 2017). Here we will explore the strategies of self talk, attentional allocation and imagery, looking at why they work and how we can use them.
Self talk
Self talk is defined as statements addressed to the self, to serve either an instructional or motivational purpose (Hardy, 2006). Self talk is effective because it acts as a mechanism of internal regulation. It has been proposed that consciousness involves constant discourse between internalised perspectives (Larrain & Haye, 2012). By extension, self talk becomes a representation of an internal position (Van Raalte, Vincent, & Brewer, 2016). As a result, using self talk in a deliberate way can regulate and redefine the meaning of one’s experiences. This can help in regulating emotion or motivation and maintaining focus on goals. For example, a tennis player throws his racquet in frustration. Recognising this, he self talks as a coping mechanism and says “Relax. I will hit better on the next point.” The following are crucial considerations for self talk strategies.
Effective self talk is true and congruent with self perceptions (Brooks, 2014). Anxious individuals experience improved performance when reappraising their emotion as excitement through self talk such as “I am excited”, rather than suppressing it through phrases like “I am calm” (Brooks, 2014). When self talk doesn’t match the performer’s self perceptions, it results in self talk dissonance. Self talk dissonance creates a discomfort that depletes cognitive resources and disrupts performance (Van Raalte, Vincent & Brewer, 2016). For example, low self esteem individuals who use positive self talk actually experience decreased performance (Van Raalte, Vincent & Brewer, 2017). In short, don’t lie to yourself. The key here is to reframe your emotional state in a more productive way, for example, from anxiety into excitement.
Don’t overdo it. Self talk is cognitively demanding (Van Raalte, Vincent & Brewer, 2017). This leaves fewer cognitive resources to be allocated to task execution, which can result in decreased performance (Hagger, Wood, Stiff & Chatzisarantis, 2010). As a result, excessive use of self talk can cognitively overload the performer and harm their execution. An example of this would be a basketball player thinking “Bend the knees. See the ring. Square the elbow. Flick the wrist.” prior to every shot. This is far too much information to process rapidly, particularly under pressure. Furthermore, this cognitive overload can result in “paralysis by analysis” (Furley & Memmert, 2010), a phenomenon characterised by decreased performance due to overthinking. A more efficient use of self talk would be to focus only on one important cue (e.g. “See the ring”). Self talk which is simple and easily remembered can be particularly effective for performance (Van Raalte, Vincent & Brewer, 2017).
Self talk should be simple and personalised. Performers should be able to choose their own phrases and have time to practice and adjust their self talk if necessary. Self talk which is forced or unnatural can deplete cognitive resources (Van Raalte, Vincent & Brewer, 2017), negatively affecting performance. As a result, coaches should not force any self talk routines upon their players, but guide them towards useful and personalised cues.
Phrases which are true, simple and personalised maximise the advantages of self talk. By keeping these considerations in mind, we ensure that we aren’t overwhelmed with information under pressure or spiral into cycles of negative self talk stemming from internal dissonance. Performers should use training as an opportunity to self talk and find what works for them. This will allow them to step into competition with heightened confidence and coping skills.
Allocation of attention
Attention. It’s the selective direction of our cognitive resources (Mole, 2012), the spotlight which allows our racing minds to focus on the task at hand. Without it, we would not be able to keep our focus on a task long enough for it to be done well. Additionally, we can describe attention as being internal and focused within the self or external and focused on the environment (Wulf, 2013). As what may come as a surprise for most athletes, whose coaches have drilled into them the importance of correct technique, an internal focus of attention can actually be detrimental to task performance under pressure (Wulf, 2013). Like self talk, it can lead to a cognitive overload resulting in paralysis by analysis.
So what should we focus on instead? It’s been found that adopting an external focus of attention compared to an internal one results in improved motor performance (Wulf, 2013). This form of attention involves focusing on the effect of the movement and what it causes to the environment (Wulf, 2013). This strategy becomes especially applicable for accuracy sports, where an object has to be directed towards a goal, such as basketball, soccer or golf, as attention can be externally focused onto the object itself. For example, golf players experience improved performance when they focus on the trajectory of the ball rather than the movement of their arms (Wulf, 2013).
Why does this work? It comes down to the electrical activity taking place within your muscles during a movement. Electromyography measurements have shown that an internal focus causes increased electrical activity within relevant muscle groups, compared to an external focus (Zachry, Wulf, Mercer & Bezodis, 2005). This was also detected in muscle groups not recruited in the movement (Zachry et al., 2005), meaning that there is both a local and global effect. This increased activity has been described as “noise” within the motor system, disrupting its automaticity and efficiency (Zachry et al., 2005). Termed the “constrained action hypothesis”, it is proposed to cause limiting or freezing of one’s freedom of movement (Vereijken, Emmerik, Whiting & Newell, 1992). In contrast, adopting an external focus alleviates these interferences, promoting enhanced efficiency and coordination through more precise recruitment of motor units and muscle fibres (Zachry et al., 2005).
It’s clear that an external focus of attention is superior to an internal one in the performance of motor tasks. By redirecting our attention externally, we can avoid paralysis by analysis and execute movements more smoothly, efficiently and unconsciously. It’s almost paradoxical, in the sense that the best way to do something, is to not think too much about it.
Imagery training
Anyone who’s ever played sport has probably used imagery to some extent, without even knowing it. From the kid sitting in class daydreaming about the goal that he’s going to rip into the back of the net, to the Olympic skier imagining every turn on her course, the principle remains the same. Imagery is the act of mentally rehearsing an action and its sensory aspects, without actually executing it (Murphy, 1994). Its benefits include improving skill acquisition, performance and confidence (Martin, Moritz & Hall, 1999).
There are two main theories that explain the link between imagery and performance. The psychoneuromuscular theory is focused on muscular responses and proposes that imagery replicates the motor pattern being rehearsed (Gould, Voelker, Damarjian & Greenleaf, 2014). There is a resulting neural and motor activation resembling the movement, which enhances muscle memory (Gould et al., 2014). In contrast, the symbolic learning theory proposes that imagery acts on a cognitive rather than a muscular level (Gould et al., 2014). As a result, imagery solidifies one’s mental schema or blueprint as to how an action should be executed (Gould et al., 2014). Regardless of which theory we accept, we can’t dispute the very real correlation between mind and muscle, evidenced by the high overlap of active brain regions between movement execution and imagery (Lotze & Halsband, 2006).
There are several considerations for effective imagery. Firstly, it’s crucial that performers understand the distinction between imagery and visualisation. While visualisation involves only seeing, imagery recruits multiple sensory aspects on top of it. Rehearsing more accurate and vivid images is linked to improved performance (Williams & Cumming, 2011). For example, a swimmer should not only see the pool, but smell the chlorine, feel their toes kicking off the wall and hear the rush of water in their ears.
Imagery control is a must for successful imagery. The controllability of an image refers to the individual’s ability to influence the content of that image (Murphy, 1994). This is crucial because negative imagery such as seeing oneself fail can degrade performance (Gould et al., 2014) and by extension, confidence. Although imagery control can improve with practice, for those who struggle with controllability, additional strategies can be used to improve this. Relaxation is a method that can improve the quality of imagery and performance (Weinberg, Seabourne & Jackson, 1981). Techniques such as muscle relaxation and deep breathing prior to imagery can relieve distractions and allow for deeper concentration (Gould et al., 2014). As a result, relaxation can facilitate greater imagery control.
Finally, like any physical skill, only regular practise of imagery will bring results. How often should you practise? This is where the literature gets murky and understandably so. Imagery is a complex concept that is difficult to measure and varies widely depending on each person and their chosen task, meaning that there isn’t yet a conclusive answer. A meta-analysis by Driskell, Copper, & Moran (1994) found that the frequency of imagery sessions was not a predictor of performance, by examining studies which involved imagery practise ranging from 1 trial up to 1470 trials! As a result, it is very much up to the performer to find a routine that works for them. Setting aside time for regular imagery, such as before training sessions, can be a good place to start.
Imagery is a proven psychological intervention to improve performance. However, it’s not a “quick fix” solution. For those who are willing to put in the time and effort of regular practise to develop vividness and control, it can provide a rewarding return on investment. Seeing (and hearing, feeling, smelling) is believing.
Wrap up
Psychological strategies such as self talk, attention allocation and imagery can improve performance. Self talk and attention allocation strategies can be used during performance while imagery is most often used prior to performance. Regardless, all three strategies should be experimented with in training to allow the performer to become comfortable with it before they use it in competition. For those who are consistently putting in the work on the physical side but produce lacklustre results under pressure, psychological preparation can quite often be the missing ingredient. It’s a true shame to let pressure, doubt or anxiety get in the way of doing what you do best. It’s all in your head anyway.
Reference list
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Brown, D., & Fletcher, D. (2017). Effects of psychological and psychosocial interventions on sport performance: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 47(1), 77–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0552-7
Driskell, J., Copper, C., & Moran, A. (1994). Does mental practice enhance performance? Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(4), 481–492. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.79.4.481
Ehrlenspiel, F. (2001). Paralysis by analysis? A functional framework for the effects of attentional focus on the control of motor skills. European Journal of Sport Science, 1(5), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390100071505
Furley, P., & Memmert, D. (2010). The role of working memory in sport. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3(2), 171–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2010.526238
Gould, D., Voelker, D., Damarjian, N., & Greenleaf, C. (2014). Imagery training for peak performance. https://doi.org/10.1037/14251-004
Hagger, M., Wood, C., Stiff, C., & Chatzisarantis, N. (2010). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 495–525. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019486
Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 7(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.04.002
Larrain, A., & Haye, A. (2012). The discursive nature of inner speech. Theory & Psychology, 22(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354311423864
Lotze, M., & Halsband, U. (2006). Motor imagery. Journal of Physiology-paris, 99(4–6), 386–395.
Martin, K., Moritz, S., & Hall, C. (1999). Imagery use in sport: A literature review and applied model. Sport Psychologist, 13(3), 245–268. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.13.3.245
Mole, C. (2012). Attention. The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Cognitive Science. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195309799.013.0009
Murphy, M. (1994). Imagery interventions in sport. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 26(4), 486–494. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199404000-00014
Van Raalte, J., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. (2016). Self-talk: Review and sport-specific model. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 22(C), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.004
Van Raalte, J., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. (2017). Self-talk interventions for athletes: A theoretically grounded approach. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 8(3), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2016.1233921
Vereijken, B., Emmerik, R., Whiting, H., & Newell, K. (1992). Free(z)ing degrees of freedom in skill acquisition. Journal Of Motor Behavior, 24(1), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.1992.9941608
Weinberg, R., Seabourne, T., & Jackson, A. (1981). Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal, relaxation, and imagery on karate performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3(3), 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.3.3.228
Williams, S., & Cumming, J. (2011). Measuring athlete imagery ability: The sport imagery ability questionnaire. Journal Of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33(3), 416–440. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.3.416
Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 77–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728
Zachry, T., Wulf, G., Mercer, J., & Bezodis, N. (2005). Increased movement accuracy and reduced EMG activity as the result of adopting an external focus of attention. Brain Research Bulletin, 67(4), 304–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.06.035
Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 7(1), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.04.002
Larrain, A., & Haye, A. (2012). The discursive nature of inner speech. Theory & Psychology, 22(1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354311423864
Lotze, M., & Halsband, U. (2006). Motor imagery. Journal of Physiology-paris, 99(4–6), 386–395.
Martin, K., Moritz, S., & Hall, C. (1999). Imagery use in sport: A literature review and applied model. Sport Psychologist, 13(3), 245–268. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.13.3.245
Mole, C. (2012). Attention. The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Cognitive Science. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195309799.013.0009
Murphy, M. (1994). Imagery interventions in sport. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 26(4), 486–494. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199404000-00014
Van Raalte, J., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. (2016). Self-talk: Review and sport-specific model. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 22(C), 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.08.004
Van Raalte, J., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. (2017). Self-talk interventions for athletes: A theoretically grounded approach. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 8(3), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2016.1233921
Vereijken, B., Emmerik, R., Whiting, H., & Newell, K. (1992). Free(z)ing degrees of freedom in skill acquisition. Journal Of Motor Behavior, 24(1), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.1992.9941608
Weinberg, R., Seabourne, T., & Jackson, A. (1981). Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal, relaxation, and imagery on karate performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3(3), 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.3.3.228
Williams, S., & Cumming, J. (2011). Measuring athlete imagery ability: The sport imagery ability questionnaire. Journal Of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33(3), 416–440. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.3.416
Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 77–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728
Zachry, T., Wulf, G., Mercer, J., & Bezodis, N. (2005). Increased movement accuracy and reduced EMG activity as the result of adopting an external focus of attention. Brain Research Bulletin, 67(4), 304–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.06.035
