Homosexuality in the Halls of the Islamic Caliphate
Publicly, they reject sexual relations outside of marriage, but privately, it is often their primary pursuit, even if they are married.
Sex in general, and homosexuality in particular, are among the most contentious topics for Middle Eastern citizens, especially Muslims. Interestingly, this is the same demographic that ranks among the highest in searching for all kinds of pornography on the internet.
Publicly, they reject sexual relations outside of marriage, but privately, it is often their primary pursuit, even if they are married. This stands in stark contrast to the general acceptance of sexless marriages in much of the Middle East. Their relationship with sex in general, and homosexuality in particular, is very tense, especially among Muslims. I believe this intense denial of sexual freedom, particularly homosexuality, is an attempt to deny the hidden reality on one hand and the documented history on the other.
On the personal level regarding homosexuality, I can only refer to an illustrative map published by a popular pornographic site in 2018, which shows the distribution of interests of its global audience across its different categories.
Let’s set aside the current situation, as it varies from one society to another and from one person to another. Instead, let’s dive into history, which is relatively unified due to the Arab-Islamic hegemony over the public sphere in the region. Those who demand the persecution of homosexuals, akin to the witch hunts of medieval Europe, mostly justify their stance with the positions of Abrahamic religions, citing the story of Sodom and Gomorrah in Christianity or the Prophet Lot in Islam.
Due to my cultural background, and more importantly, due to the loud voices of Muslims who take it upon themselves to launch severe verbal and physical attacks against anyone who is sexually different from the norm, I will focus on tracing the history of sex in general, and homosexuality in particular, in the Islamic Empire.
Sex in Pre-Islamic Arabia:
Islam did not invent or teach Arabs about extramarital sexual relations or homosexuality; these were known to the Arabs long before its advent. Prostitutes were known as “Women with red flags,” and their interactions were so common and entrenched that specific laws were established to resolve issues of lineage. For instance, “trackers” were used as a primitive form of DNA analysis.
One of the most famous companions of Muhammad, Amr ibn al-As, is notably connected to these women — not for frequenting them, but for being born to one of them.
According to many Islamic heritage books such as “Al-Sira al-Halabiyya, السيرة الحلبية” “Muruj al-Dhahab مروج الذهب”, and “Al-Aqd al-Farid, العقد الفريد” the famous companion was the son of a prostitute named “Al-Nabigha bint Khuzaymah.”
These sources state that she had intercourse with four chiefs of the Quraysh tribe on the same day. When she became pregnant and gave birth, she attributed the child to Al-’As ibn Wa’il, and her claim was accepted. This narrative is fervently defended by some and vehemently denied by others, like many historical accounts.
As for homosexuality, not many narratives mention it, although there are unreliable and unsubstantiated stories, such as those linking “Zarqa’ al-Yamama /female” with the daughter of the King of Al-Hirah, “Hind bint al-Nu’man./female”
One of the most significant Arabic sexual references remains the book “Jawami’ al-Ladhdha جوامع اللذة” by the philosopher Ali al-Qazwini, along with “Nawadir al-Ayk fi Ma’rifat al-Nayk/نواضر الإيك في معرفة النيك” by Imam al-Suyuti.
With the rise of the Arabs and the establishment of an empire that expanded eastward at the expense of the Persians and westward at the expense of the Byzantines, their interest in documentation increased, reaching its peak during the Abbasid era, known as the Golden Age. This golden period left behind thousands of manuscripts, some of which provide insights into the nature of sexual life in those times.
The Umayyad Caliphate: Establishing the Lustfulness of Ruling Palaces
During the Umayyad era, the caliphal palace witnessed the beginning of sexual liberation. For the first time, women were allocated specifically for sexual purposes under the category of “Milk al-Yamin” (right hand possession).
This sexual inclination appeared very early, as described in the “letters of Al-Jahiz”. He mentions that Muawiyah, the Caliph of Muslims, would bring a slave girl, strip her of her clothes in the presence of his courtiers, place his genitals on her knees, and declare that it was the most pleasurable. Then he would say to Sa’sa’a ibn Suhan, “Take her for your children, for she is not suitable for my son Yazid after what I have done to her.”
Sexual obsession rapidly and deeply entrenched itself in the caliphate court. As mentioned by Abi Shaybah in his Musannaf/Compendium, confirming what Imam al-Suyuti narrated about Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan’s saying:
(Whoever wants to take a slave girl for pleasure should take a Berber girl [North Africa now], whoever wants one for bearing children should take a Persian girl, and whoever wants one for service should take a Roman girl [subjects of the Roman Empire]). This theorising indicates the accumulation of considerable experience in this relatively short period between the first and fifth caliphs.
By the end of the Umayyad rule, sexual indulgence reached unprecedented levels, laying the foundation for future debauchery in the caliphal palace. In 743 AD, Al-Walid ibn Yazid ibn Abd al-Malik became the 11th Caliph to sit on the throne of the Islamic Empire. His reign lasted only one year, but it was enough to earn him the title of “the licentious Caliph.” It suffices to say that the people revolted against him not for political or social reasons, as in most uprisings, but because of his extreme debauchery and immorality. It was said that he committed blasphemy and heresy, but Imam Al-Dhahabi refuted these accusations, saying: “It was not proven that Al-Walid committed blasphemy or heresy, but he was known for his drinking and homosexuality, and they revolted against him for that.”
The Caliph/Commander of the Faithful, aside from his debauchery, also wrote poetry boasting of his actions. One of the most famous verses attributed to him in this context is:
“Bring my companion Abdullah/One of them close to me without the garment,
For I am certain that I will not be sent to Hellfire,
And let those who seek Paradise strive in vain.”
The Abbasid State: The Era of the young boys.
Boys (Ghulams غلام -servant- young boy) & Girls (Jawari جواري — female slaves) were kept as sexual property.
The Abbasids continued from where their predecessors left off, unleashing their desires to the fullest and taking the court to the highest levels of debauchery and sexual obsession. The Islamic Empire experienced its most liberal era of sexual freedom, coinciding with a significant renaissance known as the Golden Age.
At the height of this era, the first openly homosexual caliph ascended the throne and lived this lifestyle openly. It was noted that one caliph’s mother selected female slaves who resembled young boys in body and appearance for him, while another caliph did not even know the number of his concubines/female slaves, and a third caliph had state dignitaries and ministers ingratiate themselves with his young boy favourites to fulfils their needs.
This phenomenon also spread beyond the palace. Many writers produced manuscripts documenting the sexual life of the society or the court, and many, such as Abu Nuwas (756–814), boldly declared their homosexual inclinations in their works.
Abu Nuwas، one of the great Arab classical poets during the time of the Abbasid Caliphate, wrote publicly about his homosexual desires and relations. His homoerotic poetry was openly circulated right up until the 20th century.
We are accustomed to associating sexual indulgence with “Harun al-Rashid,” and Islamic historians have endeavoured to purify his legacy, describing him as a man who went on a campaign one year and made the pilgrimage the next. Here, we will explore the sexual aspects of the lives of his famous sons, “al-Amin” and “al-Ma’mun,” as well as other Abbasid caliphs.
According to al-Tabari, al-Amin was entirely homosexual, desiring young boys and testicles while disdainfully rejecting beautiful slave girls, even free women/(free faithful/believers).
His mother, Zubaydah bint Ja’far al-Mansur, selected young female slaves who resembled boys and dressed them in their attire in hopes that her son would be attracted to them. However, her efforts were in vain as her son remained fixated on males over females. The fate of the female slaves who were dressed up in this manner was not mentioned after the caliph, who was devoted to males in general and his lover “Kawthar” in particular, rejected them. The caliph even wrote a poem about his beloved/young boy (Ghulam غلام -servant);
"Kawthar is my faith and my worldly life, my sickness and my physician.
He is the most helpless of people who persistently seeks his beloved.”
As for his brother al-Ma’mun, whose name adorns one of the major streets in the Heliopolis district of Cairo, he was known for his passion for women. His palace was filled with both concubines and free women, but he was not content with them alone; he also had his share of sexual encounters with men.
Al-Ma’mun’s interactions with men were not merely experimental or casual. Al-Suyuti mentions in his “Tareekh al-Khulafa” that he was bisexual. He states that al-Ma’mun had a lover named “Muhaj,” to whom he became deeply attached. The young man gained considerable favor with the caliph, to the extent that ministers and state officials began to present their requests through this beloved to ensure their needs were met.
Al-Ma’mun also mirrored his brother al-Amin in composing poetry about his young man lover, as evidenced by the following verse:
"Muhaj possesses my heart… with his alluring gaze and dark eyes.
He has a beautiful form, captivating… with charm and grace.
There is no curve to the eye… when it looks upon him with longing.”
The Abbasid caliphs succeeded each other, and with them came influential young boys.
During the reign of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil, his lover “Shahak” emerged. Later, when “Al-Mu’tasim” ascended the throne, he acquired thousands of Turkish boys, according to “Muruj al-Dhahab” by Imam al-Mas’udi.
As the Abbasid state weakened and the Mamluk state began to rise from Egypt, prostitution became even more apparent. This was documented by “Dr. Samia Musleh” under the title “Prostitution in Egypt during the Mamluk Period.”
The Ottoman Caliphate: The shift of the Turks from the object position to the subject position,
With the rise of the Ottomans and their dismantling of the Abbasid authority to establish their own state, the balance of power shifted, ending the era of enslaving Turks.
However, nothing changed in terms of the sensual nature of the caliphal court. The Ottoman sultans continued to acquire both concubines and young boys, and during their era, “erotic literature” flourished. This was particularly evident after Sultan Selim I commissioned Ahmad ibn Salman, famously known as Ibn Kamil Pasha, to write his most renowned book, “The Old Man’s Return to His Youth.”
The Ottoman era was also distinguished by the creation of specialized shirts for the sultan to wear during sexual activity. Several of these shirts have survived to this day and are currently displayed in a Turkish museum. The most famous of these is the shirt of Sultan Murad III, notable for its inscriptions of the names of Allah, verses from the “Burda” by Al-Busiri, and other religious references written in talismanic script intended to bestow sexual power upon its wearer.
The Ottoman caliphate era also saw the regulation of prostitution in several provinces, making it available to the public for a fee. Additionally, the Ottoman sultans introduced the concept of the “Haramlek,” which served as a private residence for the palace women, including wives and concubines. This space also included eunuchs and young boys alongside them.
In the Ottoman harem, the women regained the role of the “shadow caliph” from the young boys, and wives and concubines once again stole the spotlight in the rulers’ beds.
The dominance of heteronormative practices overtook homosexual practices in the caliphal court, which maintained its sensual presence with a relative shift in inclinations.
As the sexual role of the young boys diminished, slave traders/Pimps sought to enhance their merchandise by training the boys in dance, playing musical instruments, and drumming. They dressed them in women’s clothing and taught them to apply makeup like women, so they could serve an entertaining role in addition to their sexual duties.
The relative decline of homosexuality in favour of heterosexual practices did not mean a complete return of homosexuality to the shadows of secrecy.
Homosexual practices remained present in the palaces of Muslim sultans, though less intensely.
The young boys did not lose their presence at the courts of Muslim sultans only; they also lost much of their influence to the women of the harem.
However, due to the evolution of their roles, the market for multi-purpose young boys, known as **Köçek كوچيك** In Turkish, remained vibrant.
In fact, Muslim societies once openly spoke of same-sex love, even celebrating it at times. Mahmud of Ghazni, a towering sultan of his time (971–1030), was actually held up as an ideal for, among other things, deeply loving another man, Malik Ayaz.
Mughal Emperor Babur wrote of his attraction to a boy in the camp bazaar in his 16th-century autobiography — a celebrated work of literature in the medieval Muslim world.
In the 18th century, Dargah Quli Khan, a nobleman from the Deccan travelling to Delhi, wrote a fascinating account of the city called the Muraqqa-e-Dehli (The Delhi Album), which described just how mundane homosexuality was in Indo-Islamic society. At the public bazaars, male prostitutes solicited openly and Khan spoke admiringly of how “young good-looking men danced everywhere and created great excitement”.
Till the 19th century, Muslims treated homosexuality as a part and parcel of life, so much so that students were exposed to romantic stories of homosexual love — a position untenable even today across parts of the Western word. Kidwai writes:
Sadi’s classic Gulistan, containing stories of attraction between men, was considered essential reading for Persian students. Ghanimat’s Nau rang-i ishq, a seventeenth century masnavi describing the love affair between the poet’s patron’s son and his beloved Shahid, was a prescribed text in schools.
This development helped maintain the presence of both young boys and the homosexual world on the scene. Poets celebrated homosexual relationships, and artists depicted them in their paintings. In 1858, Sultan “Abdul Mejid I” issued a decree abolishing the legal punishment for homosexual practices (a status inherited by Turkey), that there was no agreed-upon punishment among Islamic jurists, as the Qur’an does not specify any punishment for it.
