Machiavellian State Governance: On the State, Individual, and Ruler

One of the prominent thinkers of the Renaissance period, Niccolò Machiavelli, left an indelible mark on history with his revolutionary views in political philosophy. Known as an Italian diplomat and historian, Machiavelli, particularly in his work “The Prince,” argues for a realistic perspective on politics. Machiavelli’s political philosophy advocates for viewing the state from a realistic perspective, free from traditional moral norms. According to him, a ruler’s goal should be to ensure the security of the state, protect their power, and make the people content. In “The Prince,” Machiavelli suggests that rulers should employ pragmatic and effective management strategies rather than relying on honesty and virtue. According to Machiavelli, the state must use any means necessary to sustain its existence and be powerful. Essential components of a strong state, in his view, include a powerful army, a fair legal system, and effective governance. Machiavelli contends that, at times, tactics such as deceit, intrigue, and ruthlessness may be necessary for the survival of the state.

One of Machiavelli’s most debated views is the pragmatic use of power. Leaders, according to him, may deviate from moral norms when necessary to maintain their power and control their populations. This forms the basis of Machiavelli’s political realism. Over time, Machiavelli’s political philosophy has influenced many thinkers and shaped the foundations of modern politics. This power-centric and pragmatic approach continues to be studied and applied by political scientists and leaders today. Machiavelli’s political philosophy extends beyond the internal workings of the state, influencing international relations and leadership.

Looking at the history of Continental Europe, there was a long period known as the Dark Ages during the medieval era. Scholastic thought dominated throughout Europe during this time. Machiavelli attributes the Dark Ages to both scholastic thought’s oppressive nature, imposing top-down ideas, and the feudal structure of Europe. Due to the characteristics of feudalism, the productive class had to submit to both religious and political authorities, or else they would face the ruthless methods of the Inquisition. The Renaissance and Reform movements brought an end to scholastic thought in Europe, transforming the dark age into an era of enlightenment. Factors such as the impact of the Crusades and the invention of the printing press played crucial roles in this transformation. Knowledge escaped the monopoly of the church, and the dissemination of sources beyond Latin manuscripts became possible. Italian city-states, especially in the 15th century, became centers of trade dominance along the Silk and Spice routes. Additionally, the Crusades turned Italian city-states into effective mediators with other cultures. Trade not only generated immense wealth but also led to the development of systems that preserved the financial dominance of the wealthy merchant class. The emergence of banking accelerated industrial production, leading to the rise of wealthy Florentine bankers and merchants forming a class known as “popolani grassi.” This class established an oligarchic rule in Florence by lending money to their rulers and even foreign leaders.

Niccolò Machiavelli, residing in the Italian city-state of Florence, served as a statesman in his middle years. During the 15th century, while Italian city-states were considered the wealthiest and most cultured regions in Europe, Florence stood out as the richest and most cultured among them. However, Machiavelli’s time witnessed the sack of Italian city-states by northern invaders due to political instability. Despite wealth and cultural richness, the lack of political unity and a regular army proved insufficient to protect these city-states. Recognizing this, Machiavelli emphasized the importance of political unity and the establishment of a regular army. Italy at that time had a complex political structure, including kingdoms, principalities, duchies, city-states, and republics. In the process of achieving the modern state, Machiavelli’s views have significantly influenced many thinkers and political figures. The establishment of a national army gained importance over mercenary services, marking a shift in the formation of the nation-state. Therefore, Machiavelli’s work “The Prince” remains relevant, not only in the structure of nation-states but also in the principles of modern political philosophy. Considering these aspects, it is possible to argue that his work has maintained its relevance and prominence in the principles of state governance.

Machiavellian Political Philosophy

“Those who paint landscapes stand on a plain to observe the structures of mountains and high places, and climb to the tops of mountains to study the structures of plains and low places. Likewise, to understand the nature of the people, it is necessary to be a prince, and to understand princes, it is necessary to be of the people.” (Machiavelli, The Prince, p.38.)

As understood from the above quote, Machiavelli emphasizes a strong relationship between the leader and the governed. To understand the characteristics of a people, one must be their leader. Otherwise, predicting the reactions and behaviors of the people becomes impossible. Similarly, to understand a leader, one must be governed by them. This underscores the importance of a tight bond between the people and politicians, and a weakening of this bond could lead to the downfall of a leader. Machiavelli emphasizes the significance of achievements over intentions. Instead of an idealized political philosophy, he advocates for a political understanding based on real events. This allows politics to be seen as a strategy and a technical skill. Thus, Machiavelli goes beyond rule-based approaches to suggest that leaders must manage their people with a realistic perspective. Additionally, he aims to reduce the influence of religious beliefs on political decisions, promoting a transition to a secular governance approach.

Machiavelli suggests that the leader should be practical and effective, focusing on tangible achievements rather than adhering to moral norms. While events and facts may seem as people perceive them, very few can truly grasp the true nature of events. Therefore, people often concentrate on each other’s actions while intentions remain unseen, acting as an unseen factor. Notable thinkers like Rousseau have noted that Machiavelli’s advice extends not only to leaders but also to the people. However, Rousseau draws this conclusion not from Machiavelli’s work “The Prince” but from his other work, “Discourses.” Hegel summarizes Machiavelli’s purpose as achieving political unity in Italy. According to Hegel, Machiavelli prioritized the establishment of political unity over individual freedoms.

On Leadership Qualities and Behaviors

“The lion cannot protect itself from traps, and the fox cannot defend itself from wolves. One must therefore be a fox to recognize traps and a lion to frighten off wolves.” (Machiavelli, The Prince, p.102.)

Machiavelli highlights the qualities a leader must possess to acquire and maintain power. The leader should be strong and courageous to repel attacks and cunning to protect themselves from traps. These two fundamental qualities should define a leader; strength to show and an avoidance of appearing weak. Additionally, a leader must be vigilant. If a leader lacks these qualities, they should act as if they possess them when necessary. A successful leader should foresee political maneuvers in advance since it might be too late to intervene. Therefore, leaders must be prepared for challenging times during peaceful and tranquil periods. These preparations will safeguard the leader and ensure the safety of the people. Hence, a leader should spend their peaceful times in education. Otherwise, the leader might be caught off guard when facing difficult situations, and their moves may not be well-considered. A skilled leader might sometimes not fulfill promises. If keeping promises might harm the leader or cause damage, the leader should admit that the promise is not valid. Machiavelli eliminates concepts such as religiously forbidden or morally wrong and replaces them with politically successful or unsuccessful. In this context, actions taken by the leader to maintain power and ensure the state’s survival are considered correct and effective actions.

Politics, according to Machiavelli, is a secular matter. In the time he lived, two forms of government were prevalent: republics and principalities. However, Machiavelli focused particularly on principalities, meaning monarchies. His primary goal was to unite fragmented city-states under a powerful prince. Therefore, Machiavelli’s advice and recommendations are oriented towards a single-person rule rather than the principle of the separation of powers. Machiavelli also expresses the desire for the prince to be an advisor, providing many pieces of advice to the prince. According to Machiavelli, politics originates from human nature; thus, politics should be shaped according to human nature. In this context, a leader does not have to comply with Christian ethics. The Prince should deviate from this ethics to achieve political goals. Machiavelli suggests that it is better for the leader to be feared than loved by the people. This is because emotions and feelings are constantly changing. Machiavelli compares a Roman army commander to Hannibal, asserting that a feared leader is more effective. He emphasizes that Hannibal won battles because he was a respected and feared leader. On the other hand, the Roman commander faced revolts because he was a loved leader. According to Machiavelli, a leader causing fear will be more effective than a loved one.

They may betray a beloved leader when it comes to their interests. Therefore, a leader should avoid making promises that could harm their interests. Machiavelli advises the leader to sever emotional ties for the sake of their interests and considers the leader’s actions to maintain power and ensure the state’s survival as successful actions. Additionally, the leader should inspire fear but should not be hated. (Machiavelli, The Prince, 2013, p.99.) A leader focused on and embraced by the people, leading in the battlefield, and being resilient in the face of difficulties, forms a charismatic authoritative personality that keeps the people’s morale high. This is derived from the charismatic authority originating from the charismatic leadership. If a charismatic leader can make the people feel they are needed, they will never be betrayed. Thus, Machiavelli’s political philosophy is based on the fundamental principles that a leader must be strong, intelligent, cunning, success-oriented, and offer charismatic leadership to their people. These principles aim to highlight the leader’s concrete achievements over intentions, strength and courage, vigilance and cunning, effective management of the people, and the preservation of power. Machiavelli’s works provide advice and strategies to leaders, urging the pragmatic and realistic consideration of politics.

On Governance Principles

Machiavelli argues that a ruler must be committed to patriotism when governing their country. According to him, only a leader who considers the freedom and prosperity of the citizens can be successful. The inspiration for this idea stems from the invasion of Italy by northern barbarian tribes. Parallel to Italy’s struggle for freedom, the leader’s patriotism is based on the independence gained against external forces. In this way, the fame and reputation gained by the leader through stable governance and legal practices associated with the state’s independence will gradually spread, making the leader’s legitimacy unquestionable among the people. (Strauss, 2017, p.89.) During the Renaissance period, individuals began relying on reason rather than seeking refuge in religious teachings. It was said that man had mastery over his own reason and free will, allowing him to engage in both good and evil actions. Therefore, Machiavelli argued that the governance of the Italian people, who lived in a regime governed by such an order, should be realized through a secular understanding. At the core of the secular political philosophy lies a focus on the common good of the people rather than ethical and moral concepts, emphasizing the necessity for a leader to consider the common good of the people. Eventually, the leader must set aside ethical and moral concepts. Thanks to these ideas, Machiavelli is considered one of the founders of modernity in governance principles. The rise of monarchy, in contrast to church and feudal rule, influences Machiavelli’s leadership discourse.

In this context, it is emphasized that the goal for Italy is the consolidation of sovereignty in a leader who is a single person and the establishment of order through national unity. The wars resulting from the problems encountered in the sharing of political power are seen as a period of violence in this era. Therefore, Machiavelli suggests that war should not be avoided when necessary for the peace and security of the state. He puts forward the principle of leadership focused on power and unafraid of war. Avoiding war is only a delay to the detriment of the country, he states. Because in this case, there will be ongoing confusion and unrest among the people. (Machiavelli, The Prince, p.49.) Although Machiavelli gives advice on leadership, his Machiavellian political philosophy does not target a specific subject. It is accepted that he presents views that go beyond his time. Since Machiavelli’s political philosophy does not revolve around a specific subject, it is considered scientific. (Althusser, 2010, p.28–29.) Machiavelli contemplated various forms of government and leadership in his works and talked about the effects of laws on people. The existence of infinite desires in humans and the emphasis on their evilness make political philosophy universal. Indeed, for this reason, Machiavelli’s leadership principles have not been limited to the time and geography he lived in; these principles have reached the present day. On the other hand, Machiavelli expresses that political views cannot be universal, and leadership principles can always change. He states that only the nature and behaviors of the people are universal and permanent. “People are born, live, and die with the same nature.” (Machiavelli, p.78.) In his work titled “Discourses,” Machiavelli explains his political theory on leadership with a similar narrative style. “The person who plans a state and establishes laws for it must assume that people are bad and will act according to the evil in their souls when they find room for free movement.” (Machiavelli, Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius, 2009, p.36–37.)

Machiavelli argues that a secular understanding should be based on rationality for leadership, and ethical rules and virtue definitions are related to the ideal state. However, he points out that in the 15th and 16th centuries, as well as today, we are far from the ideal state based on concrete facts. Just as all individuals who make up the people, the leader can make correct decisions with his mind both for the sake of legitimacy and for the welfare and tranquility of the people. Knowing Latin and Greek, inspired by readings in Greek, Machiavelli mentioned two fundamental concepts. These concepts are virtù and fortuna. In order to influence virtù and fortune, the leader must adapt to the conditions of the period. In this sense, virtue is not a moral characteristic of the leader but a situation where he is effective and successful. Machiavelli sometimes foresaw that the nobles would oppress the people in republican governments. He thinks that the oppression of the people by the nobles and the exploitation of their efforts can cause some problems. In this conflict where one side wants not to be oppressed, the other side wants to oppress, and this conflict can lead to three problems in the structure of the state: principality, freedom, or chaos. (Machiavelli, p.71.) In this observation of class conflict by Machiavelli, it will be the case that if the prince is chosen from among the nobles, the people will be oppressed again. In this case, the conflict will continue. However, if the prince takes the side of the people, in this case, he will face a clever and selfish class like the nobles. The farsighted nobility can always take measures to save themselves. A new prince believed to be superior may be put forward by the nobles, and the prince who is in favor of the people may lose power. In this dilemma, Machiavelli says that the prince should be on the side of the people; because the prince must always live with the same people. However, a prince can exist without the nobles. In summary, a prince or statesman who is a leader must be friendly with the people. Otherwise, the prince is doomed to be alone in bad times. (Machiavelli, p.72.)

In governments where officials with the qualities of a leader assigned by the prince exist, it is said that the prince is always at risk. The prince, who is in the central authority, is entirely dependent on the will of the leaders he appoints. In a way, the fate of the prince is in the hands of these leaders. Sometimes they can elevate the prince, sometimes they can work to the detriment of the prince. Also, these leaders can easily betray in some difficult times. Because the people who are used to receiving orders from influential leaders can reject the authority of the prince. In unstable periods, the prince always faces the problem of finding a person he can trust. Indeed, in times when citizens need the state, everyone mobilizes, while in times when the state needs reliable citizens, very few citizens are found. Therefore, the prince should not focus on calm times; because in calm times, when death is far away, everyone rushes, everyone wants to sacrifice for him by making promises. However, when death is close, these people disappear. Finally, a wise prince must find a way to make his citizens need him and his state at all times. Even if he has done nothing for a while, the people should see the prince as a leader who will do something for them. For this reason, leaders should always be in touch with the people, praise the country, and show their leadership virtues to the people.

Machiavelli mentions another important concept in his works, which he sees as essential for a prince or leader to be successful. This concept is fortuna. Fortuna is the luck or opportunity of the person. Fortune can be bad or good. A leader can be successful if fortune is good. However, if fortune is bad, the leader may fail. In the history of states, it is possible to observe that leaders who have achieved success with their intelligence, talent, and courage have lost everything because of bad fortune. On the contrary, leaders who have failed because of their incompetence have come to power and been successful thanks to good fortune. For this reason, Machiavelli gives advice on how to deal with fortune for leaders who want to be successful. According to him, fortune is a river that never flows in the same place, it constantly changes its course. Therefore, a prince who wants to be successful must navigate this river well and follow its current. In other words, the leader must be flexible and adapt to changing conditions. Because fortune never stops, it always moves. A wise leader must move with fortune to be successful. (Machiavelli, The Prince, p.43–45.)