Parallel Paths in History — Part II — Rebirth of a Nation: The Meiji Restoration
In this part, I will delve into Meiji Restoration, a movement that would reshape the destiny of the nation of Japan forever, and I will emphasis its similarities to other restorations throughout the history.
The Meiji Restoration
The Meiji Restoration aimed to modernize and centralize Japan, leading to significant political, social, and economic reforms that transformed Japan into a modern nation-state. In this article you will learn motivation behind it, its affects on Japan society and similarities between Ottoman’s Tanzimat Restoration.
Overall, the Boshin War and the Meiji Restoration brought about profound changes in Japan, paving the way for its emergence as a major world power in the 20th century.
Before the Restoration
Japan was shrouded in the mists of tradition and isolation. For centuries, the ruling shogunate — hereditary military ruling of Japan (1192–1867) — had maintained control over the nation, enforcing strict isolationist policies to preserve Japanese culture and protect against foreign influence. But as the world outside evolved and modernized, Japan found itself at a crossroads, teetering on the brink of stagnation.
Amidst this backdrop of uncertainty, whispers of change began to stir. In the heart of Edo, now known as Tokyo, a group of visionary leaders emerged, determined to steer Japan into a new era of prosperity and strength. They were the architects of the Meiji Restoration, a movement that would reshape the destiny of the nation forever.
Emperor Meiji and Meiji Restoration
As I emphasized in Part I — Parallel Paths in History: Tanzimat Restoration of Ottoman and Meiji Restoration of Japan, leaders of the both restoration created a civic ideology centered around the emperor (Sultan Abdülmecid an Sultan Abdülaziz for Ottoman) ,and in Japan case it was Emperor Meiji who was behind the restoration.
At the helm of Japan’s transformation stood Emperor Meiji, a young ruler wise beyond his years. Inspired by the winds of change sweeping across the globe, Emperor Meiji envisioned a Japan united, modernized, and empowered. With unwavering resolve, he set out to dismantle the feudal system that had long divided society, paving the way for a more equitable and meritocratic society. Under his rule, Japan underwent significant political restructuring aimed at centralizing power and modernizing the country.
Boshin War and End of Shogunate
If we remember in Ottoman’s case it was the abolishment of the Janniseries (after many bloody attempts) that started restoration, and in Japan’s case end of the Shogunate’s rule started with Boshin War. The Boshin War was a civil war in Japan fought from 1868 to 1869 between forces supporting the Tokugawa Shogunate and those favoring the restoration of imperial rule.
As in the Ottoman Case, end of centuries old elite warrior class started with a Civil War.
Also known as the Japanese Revolution or Japanese Civil War, Boshin War was a civil war. The war was triggered by the shogunate’s refusal to surrender power to the imperial court and the subsequent military action taken by pro-imperial forces.
The conflict initially erupted in January 1868 when pro-imperial forces, led by domains loyal to the emperor, attacked pro-shogunate positions in Kyoto and Osaka. The shogunate’s forces, despite their initial resistance, were eventually overwhelmed by the superior numbers and modern weaponry of the imperial army.
The war caused widespread destruction and upheaval across Japan, as various domains and factions aligned themselves with either the shogunate or the imperial court in the struggle for power.
Fuhanken Sanchisei (Three-tiered Governance)
In June 1869, the Boshin Civil War came to an end with the final overthrow of the shogunate. Following its defeat, the shogunate’s power rapidly collapsed, leading to the surrender of key strongholds and the eventual abdication of the shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, in May 1868.
The Fuhanken Sanchisei (“Fu, Han and Ken), so called Three-tiered Governance System was the subnational government structure in early Meiji Japan. It lasted from the Boshin War, the start to the Meiji Restoration, in 1868 until the replacement of all remaining feudal domains (-han) with prefectures (-ken) in 1871 (In 1871, all remaining feudal domains (han) were also transformed into prefectures).
Today there are 43 prefectures proper (ken), two urban prefectures (fu: Osaka and Kyoto), one regional prefecture (dō: Hokkaidō) and one metropolis (to: Tokyo).
Abolition of the Feudal Domains
After the Boshin War, the victors, the new Meiji government, moved quickly to take a first symbolic step to abolition of the domains, ordering them to give up their registers to return territory and citizens to the state.
The domains, which were semi-autonomous regions ruled by daimyo (feudal lords), were abolished as part of the government’s efforts to eliminate feudalism and promote national unity. Instead, Japan was reorganized into prefectures, each governed by appointed officials loyal to the central government. Today, Japan is still organized in prefectures. Prefectures subdivided the whole country. In several waves of territorial consolidation, today’s 47 prefectures were formed by the turn of the century.
Abolition of the domains and establishment of the prefectures gave the new government the unified power to conduct wide-ranging reforms in taxation, the military, and education.These in turn allowed Japan to industrialize and build up its economic and military strength.
Farmer Uprisings
The abolition of domain and the introduction of land reforms sparked upheaval in rural areas, leading to farmer uprisings and antigovernment movements. For centuries, farmers had borne the brunt of feudal exploitation, subjected to heavy taxation and oppressive land policies. With the onset of modernization, many saw an opportunity to challenge the status quo and demand greater rights and freedoms.
These farmer uprisings and antigovernment movements were fueled by a potent mix of economic hardship, social injustice, and political disillusionment. Peasant leaders rallied their communities against the entrenched power structures of the old regime, advocating for land redistribution, fair taxation, and representation in government. While some of these movements were quashed by the authorities, others succeeded in effecting lasting change, laying the groundwork for a more equitable and inclusive society.
By abolishing the samurai class, sparking farmer uprisings, and challenging traditional power structures, the Meiji era set the stage for Japan’s emergence as a modern industrialized nation.
Abolition of Samurai Class
The abolition of the centuries-old samurai class marked a profound turning point in Japanese history. For centuries, the samurai had served as the stalwart defenders of feudal society, embodying the ideals of loyalty, honor, and martial prowess. However, with Japan’s transition towards modernization and the centralization of power under the Meiji government, the role of the samurai became increasingly obsolete.
In 1871, the government officially abolished the samurai class, stripping them of their privileged status and hereditary privileges.
This seismic shift in social hierarchy not only reshaped the fabric of Japanese society but also sparked widespread upheaval and discontent among the samurai themselves, many of whom struggled to adapt to the rapidly changing times. Yet, despite the demise of their traditional status, the legacy of the samurai endures in Japan’s cultural identity, revered as symbols of honor and resilience in the face of adversity.
Satsuma Rebellion
The Meiji Restoration sparked a period of soul-searching and identity crisis among the samurai class, many of whom struggled to find their place in the new order. Some embraced the opportunities presented by the Meiji government, embracing careers in education, industry, and politics. Others, however, resisted the changes, clinging to traditional values and ideals of honor and loyalty. This dichotomy gave rise to tensions and conflicts within Japanese society, as the old order clashed with the new. The seeds for the Satsuma Rebellion were sown long before 1877.
As mentioned by Mehdi E. in this story on Last Samurai, the Meiji government accelerated its Western-inspired reforms, marginalized the samurai class and opened the way to Satsuma Rebellion.
The Satsuma Rebellion, also known as the Seinan War, erupted in 1877 as a last stand of traditional samurai values against the sweeping tide of modernization in Japan. Rooted in the discontent of former samurai from the Satsuma domain over their diminished status and the centralizing reforms of the Meiji government, the rebellion was led by Saigo Takamori, a legendary samurai warrior known as the “Last Samurai.” With a fierce sense of honor and loyalty to the old ways, Saigo and his followers waged a desperate struggle against the forces of the Meiji government.
Despite their valor and determination, the rebels were ultimately overwhelmed by the modernized Imperial Japanese Army, leading to Saigo’s death and the end of the rebellion. The Satsuma Rebellion, while ending in defeat for the samurai, left an indelible mark on Japanese history, serving as a poignant symbol of the clash between tradition and progress in the tumultuous era of the Meiji Restoration.
The Last Samurai
According to Meirion and Susie Harries, authors of “The Last Samurai: The Bloody Rebellion Against the Emperor of Japan,” this battle was the epitome of a face-to-face combat among samurai. In the Satsuma Rebellion, samurai warriors wielding swords made their final stand against the Imperial Army.
Real History of Last Samurai: Saigō Takamori
By 1877, as tensions simmered and the samurais’ struggles deepened, The Last Samurai, Saigō Takamori, took a decisive step by founding a private academy in Kagoshima. This institution prioritized traditional martial arts and ethical teachings, reflecting Saigō’s commitment to preserving samurai values amidst a changing landscape.
While ostensibly an educational endeavor, the Japanese government viewed the academy with suspicion, fearing it could serve as a hotbed for rebellion and subversion. Indeed, as discontent grew and the pressure on samurai leaders intensified, Saigō found himself contemplating the prospect of armed resistance against the emerging Meiji regime. This pivotal moment underscored the complex interplay of tradition and modernity, duty and defiance, shaping the course of Japan’s tumultuous transition.
Tribute to Saigō Takamori
Born in Kagoshima, within the Satsuma Domain, Saigō Takamori was a highly skilled samurai who played a prominent role during the Boshin War between the Imperial regime and the Tokugawa Shogunate from 1868 to 1869. He fought on behalf of the Imperial regime. However, he opposed the modernization efforts taking place in Japan and initiated the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877. Despite being outnumbered and outmatched technologically, he led the Satsuma forces in the Battle of Shiroyama in 1877, where they suffered defeat against the Imperial army. Following the battle, in accordance with the Bushido tradition, Saigō Takamori chose to commit seppuku, or ritual suicide. Despite his rebellion, Emperor Meiji posthumously pardoned him and restored his honor.
Cultural Effects of the Meiji Restoration
The Meiji Restoration brought about profound cultural transformations in Japan, reshaping the fabric of society and altering the dynamics of power and identity. One of the most significant changes was the abolition of the centuries-old samurai class, which had long served as the backbone of its feudal society. With the demise of the samurai, Japan witnessed a paradigm shift in social hierarchies and values. Today Samurai Class still has affect on Japan’s identity.
No longer bound by the rigid codes of bushido and feudal allegiance, former samurai were forced to adapt to a rapidly modernizing world.
In the end, the cultural effects of the Meiji Restoration were far-reaching and complex, touching every aspect of Japanese life. Yet, it also unleashed forces of change and conflict that would shape the course of Japanese history for generations to come.
Modernization of Artistic and Intellectual Landscape
One of the most significant cultural effects of the Meiji Restoration was the modernization of Japan’s artistic and intellectual landscape. As in the case of Tanzimat Literature of Ottomans, embracing Western ideas and technologies, Japanese artists, writers, and scholars began to experiment with new forms of expression and innovation. Traditional art forms such as ukiyo-e woodblock prints and kabuki theater evolved alongside Western-style painting and literature, creating a rich tapestry of cultural exchange and creativity.
The Meiji government’s emphasis on education and literacy led to the widespread dissemination of knowledge and ideas, fostering a spirit of intellectual curiosity and inquiry among the populace. The Meiji Restoration not only laid the groundwork for Japan’s emergence as a global powerhouse in the 20th century, but also reshaped Japan’s cultural identity but also.
Opening Way to Industrialized Japan
The Meiji period witnessed not only political changes but also significant economic and social transformations. While agriculture remained a vital part of the economy, the government prioritized industrialization, laying the groundwork for the development of key industries, transportation networks, and communication systems.
In pursuit of modernization, Japan embarked on ambitious infrastructure projects, including the construction of its first railway in 1872, which opened the way for a network of over 1,400 miles (2,250 km) of rail by 1890. The establishment of telegraph lines by 1880 further facilitated communication between major cities.
To support industrial growth, the government provided financial incentives to private enterprises and established a European-style banking system in 1882. This encouraged investment and entrepreneurship, fueling economic expansion. Embracing Western science and technology was central to Japan’s modernization efforts, and the promotion of “Civilization and Enlightenment” (“Bunmei kaika”) became a rallying cry. Western culture permeated various aspects of Japanese society, influencing intellectual trends, fashion, and architectural styles as the country embraced the ethos of progress and advancement.
Industrial Warfare
Industrial warfare during the Meiji Restoration was profound, allowing Japan to modernize its military forces and assert itself as a formidable regional power. This period marked the beginning of Japan’s transformation into a modern nation-state with a strong emphasis on military prowess and technological innovation.
The Meiji government invested heavily in infrastructure and technology to support its military ambitions. The development of railroads, telegraph lines, and industrial factories facilitated the mobilization and supply of troops, enabling faster communication and logistics during military campaigns. Additionally, the establishment of military academies and training programs provided soldiers with the skills needed to operate and maintain modern equipment effectively.
Satsuma Rebellion represented the first instance of industrial warfare, with the use of machine guns in a battle for the first time in history. While the Imperial forces included First Wave Samurai, the army primarily consisted of Second Wave soldiers armed with Gatling guns, artillery, and rifles.
Final Words
In conclusion, the Tanzimat Restoration of the Ottoman Empire and the Meiji Restoration of Japan share remarkable similarities in their motivations, objectives, methods, and impacts, despite their geographical and cultural differences. Both movements exemplify the challenges and opportunities inherent in processes of modernization and state-building, offering valuable lessons for scholars and policymakers alike.
As ongoing research and scholarship continue to uncover new perspectives and interpretations, the comparative study of the Tanzimat and Meiji Restorations remains a rich and fertile field of inquiry, illuminating the dynamics of change and continuity in the modern history of the Middle East and East Asia.
