Contextualized introduction
In Seoul, South Korea, it is challenging to avoid visualizations of plastic surgery; and with its unprecedented industrial success, it is understandable why. With over one million cosmetic procedures done in 2015 alone, South Korea has an internationally unparalleled number of plastic surgeons and performed cosmetic procedures per capita (ISAPS, 2016). The country thus holds the largest cosmetically-enhanced population, equivalent to approximately one in five women (ISAPS, 2016). As a result, Seoul is known as the world’s beauty and plastic surgery capital (ISAPS, 2016; Wang, 2015). In particular, the Apgujeong-Gangnam district of Seoul- known as the ‘Beauty Belt’ of Korea- contains an upwards of 500 clinics and hospitals (Wang, 2015; Marx, 2017). There are many causations to this over-saturation. With a hyper-competitive society that strongly values social perception and lookism, cosmetic surgery is seen as the solution to existential issues, bridging the path to success and profit (Wang, 2015; Marx, 2017). The immense social pressure for conformity in both beliefs and appearance is propelled not only by the urges of loved ones but by advertisements throughout the city and online, TV shows revolving around transformative surgery, celebrity promotion and surgery beneficiaries. Undoubtedly, among the biggest contributors to the fixation on plastic surgery is the South Korean media. The media is powerful; is it a tool to communicate to a wide audience and a means of constructing an apparent form of reality through the ideological messages it imparts on audiences (Pungente, n.d.). Therefore, this paper argues that the images of plastic beauty as circulated by the South Korean media perpetuate an unrealistic beauty standard by manipulating the collective understanding of human aesthetics. Through the excessive amount of promotional surgical images, the media creates norms and beauty standards, which subsequently structures the connotation and discussions surrounding plastic surgery. This argument is based on discourse analysis, which is applied in order to unravel the workings of cosmetic surgery images as well as explore the conversations surrounding cosmetic surgery in South Korea. It will also incorporate audience studies to form an understanding as to how audiences respond to the media. This perspective is important because it showcases how normative behaviour is created in society through visual representations. Furthermore, it presents the dangers and severity of media manipulation as illustrated in South Korea.
Literature Review
This paper examines how images pertaining to cosmetic surgery construct a distorted perception of beauty in South Korea and configure conversations about surgery. To do so, the social framing of plastic surgery will be deconstructed. Media is believed to have a strong effect on the ideologies and behaviours of audiences and has been greatly attributed to the expansion of plastic surgery in Korea (Davies & Han, 2011; Wang, 2015). In particular, through the dominance of images, varying from advertisements to TV shows both online and throughout the city, the ideologies of the media can produce its effect (Davies & Han, 2011; Wang, 2015). This paper’s argument is supported by media effects theories, which describe how media messages create responses in viewers (Tsfati, 2011). Specifically, cultivation theory suggests that repeated exposure to media messages increases its perceived validity (Galea, 2014). Similarly, audience theories detail how audience members may interpret messages (Galea, 2014). As well, socialization theory outlines the process by which individuals inherit norms, ideologies, and the necessary habits and skills to participate in society (Lumen Learning, n.d.). Media effects theories and cultivation theory are used in this paper to explain how the media delivers certain ideological concepts to citizens; audience theories and socialization theory are used to demonstrate how ideologies become embedded into a culture.
Methodological Approaches
This paper utilizes discourse analysis and audience studies to form the methodological process through which it uncovers the various aspects of cosmetic surgery’s promotion through visual images in South Korea. Discourse analysis is a research methodology that disarticulates everyday conversations and texts to reveal the workings of power (Nixon, 2017). It is applied in order to define elements of images that propagate discourse. By utilizing discourse analysis, the manner in which cosmetic surgery is discussed verbally and through text in Korean society and media can be explored, as well as the social effects of the high volume of circulated surgical images and advertisements. Audience studies and theories are employed to explain the reception of the media by an audience and its ramifications (Galea, 2014). Through audience studies, the means and methods through which the Korean media projects its’ beauty standards and ideology can be understood, as well as how it affects the culture. Ethnography is used to examine dialogue in interviews concerning plastic surgery in Korea. These interviews range in medium from videos to articles. Various digital images pertaining to cosmetic surgery are examined including advertisements, celebrity images, screenshots, and images of how surgical advertisements are displayed in the physical world. Images were found on Google using keywords such as ‘plastic/cosmetic/aesthetic surgery’; ‘South Korea’; ‘Seoul’; ‘Gangnam’; ‘subway station’ and ‘advertisements’. In particular, materials regarding facial reconstruction targeted towards young females were selected because this is often the target audience. To collect the necessary knowledge academic papers, news articles, statistics and theoretical frameworks were read. This paper will address the following questions:
- In what ways do media images construct an understanding of aesthetics?
- To what extent are the discourses on cosmetic enhancements reflective of cultural beliefs?
- In what ways do images form cultural norms?
Findings and Analytical Interpretation
Media Effects on audiences
In the cycle of cultural integration and acceptance of specific ideology via the media, there are three main phases. It begins with audience exposure and reception of media messages. With the adoption of such messages, normalization is then constructed. This normalization subsequently alters the connotation of the given ideology. Through the hyperactivity of these stages, plastic surgery in Korea has risen to its current popularity. The main cause of integration, in accordance with media effects theory, is media messages’ influence on viewers. Because the media can manipulate perceived reality and construct sociological ideologies, it can form a particular standard of beauty and understanding of consequence. By framing a particular aesthetic in association with aspects such as success and happiness, the South Korean media creates a figured world. In it, reformative surgery is the key to self-improvement, competitive advantage and overall existential benefits. In this world are affluent and beautiful people, including numerous idolized celebrities. These images suggest that ordinary audience members may also join this world and reap the benefits at a minuscule cost. Thus, adverts on cosmetic surgery not only sell a commercial product, they sell an idealized lifestyle. Figures 1 and 2 are such advertisements. Figure 1 is Grand Plastic Surgery’s advert aimed towards hopeful single women. It displays a ring with a small jewel in the column titled ‘before’ which becomes a ring with a larger jewel in the column titled ‘after’. The ad implies that post-surgery, women will be able to find richer partners and presumably be more content. This association relies on the belief that those who are successful in their career become wealthy, and thus happy. It also references the common gesture of men gifting jewelry to women. Thus the ring may also be viewed as a wedding ring. Meaning is created through the jewel, which is attributed to prosperity and affluence. This advertisement echoes the human desire for money and a high social standing. It is dependent on the traditional mindset, which values wealthy and successful men as breadwinners. In the figured world of this ad, beautiful women are able to participate in lavish lifestyles and marriages. This perpetuates the narrative that attractive women are able to achieve a fantasy romance, such as those depicted in fictional works. In figure 2, BK Plastic Surgery Clinic utilizes the fear of gossip to convey their message. The text reads ‘I know some pretty girls’, and behind it stands four glamorous, attractive women. It suggests that an unknown speaker is discussing these women, noting their beauty. This meaning is established through the context and use of quotations to indicate speech. The bottom half of the advert contains before and after images, illustrating how these women have become the socially constructed definition of attractive after undergoing surgery. Thus, if the viewer also wishes to be discussed in a positive manner she can achieve this through surgery at BK Clinic. Similar to figure 1, this advert also creates a figured world in which beauty produces existential advantages. The figured world created by BK Clinic reflects the value of superficial appearances in Korea. Thus, Korean advertisements promote plastic surgery and Korean beauty standards by creating a figured world and relying on human desires.
The creation of normative ideologies
In accordance with cultivation theory, prolonged exposure to a particular message increases its perception of truthfulness (Tsfati, 2011). Thus, norms and an unrealistic beauty standard are created through an excessive volume of post-surgery images. This effect is intensified in Korea because of the large duration of exposure to such images, as seen in figure 3 where several cosmetic surgery advertisements are on display in Gangnam Station. Through the use of colour, these advertisements contrast the station wall, which appears monotonous in comparison. This creates the impression that the figured world in advertisements is superior, as it is vibrant and lively. Korea has among the highest rates of digital penetration and internet speeds (Davies & Han, 2011). As a highly digitally connected society, citizens’ heavy digital immersion can cause Korean lifestyle and media to be rapidly spread around the nation (Davies & Han, 2011; Fastmetrics, n.d.). Subsequently, cosmetic procedures also have the potential to be endorsed to a large audience via the entertainment industry, surgery advertisements and blogs, and the exposure to before and after images (Davies & Han, 2011). In addition, with the aid of digital technology, the rise of Korean media- called Hallyu, or the ‘Korean wave’- is thought to correlate with the rise in plastic surgery (Davies & Han, 2011; Wang, 2015). Various celebrities are paid for endorsing certain surgical procedures or clinics, while others undergo procedures prior to debuting to aid with their commercial success (Davies & Han, 2011). Even former president Roh Moo-Hyun and his wife are known beneficiaries of eyelid surgery (Davies & Han, 2011). Celebrity figures often appeal to a culture’s sense of style and beauty. With idolized figures confining to a particular standard of beauty, they are also promoting a particular appearance and means of achieving it to fans. As a result, it is a common request for surgeons to recreate a certain celebrity’s features on a patient’s visage (Marx, 2017). A frequently mentioned celebrity is actress Kim Tae Hee, shown in figure 4, who is often titled Korea’s most beautiful woman (Marx, 2017).
Normalization often leads to a decrease in stigma; however, it can also cause societal pressure for conformity. Many advertisements use pressure to persuade, as demonstrated in one such ad in Gangnam Station that reads, ‘everyone but you has done it’ (Marx, 2017). As well, norms are promoted through socialization, wherein plastic surgery can be advocated and normalized by friends and family. In Patricia Marx’s article on the issue, an anonymous college student notes that “when you’re nineteen, all the girls get plastic surgery, so if you don’t do it, after a few years, your friends will all look better, but you will look like your unimproved you”; another girl mentions that women “are congratulated for having plastic surgery” (2017, para. 6, para. 27). Several women also attribute their surgical enhancements to the suggestion of a parental figure (Marx, 2017; Standen, 2013). An alarming effect that may soon arise from this craze is the harm on children of surgery recipients. Their children may also desire to have procedures done to match the expectation of beauty as set by their parental figure. Though, a current phenomenon that the media is creating is a narrowing understanding of beauty, forming strict guidelines on its definition. As a result, there is a rising trend of patients with identical features. Korea’s narrow standard of beauty became especially apparent when images surfaced online of surgery recipients who greatly resemble one another. As exhibited in figure 5, all the women reflect Korea’s definition of beauty: straight eyebrows, big eyes, slim noses, and tapered jawlines.
Shifts in the dominant meaning
Due to the normality of cosmetic surgery in South Korea, the connotation and conversations revolving around surgery differ from Western perspectives. In Korean, the word used is not ‘plastic surgery’ but ‘reforming surgery’. As a result, the situated meaning has changed; there is no negative connotation contrary to the word ‘plastic’ which insinuates falseness and dis-ingenuity. Instead, surgery is seen as a method to enhance one’s appearance and life. This ideology is displayed in the popular TV show Let Me In, which showcases the transformative power of surgery to better the lives of those deemed unattractive. Given nicknames such as ‘Girl Who Looks Like Frankenstein’ and ‘Monkey’, contestants explain the turmoil that their unattractiveness has brought upon them. After their transformation, they are met with audience applause and a touching reunion with family and friends. Figure 6 showcases a well-known contestant, Huh Ye Eun, and her progression through the show from post-surgery to her reunion with her mother. The difference in portrayal by the show before and after surgery is distinct. Prior to surgery, Huh Ye Eun is presented with a black backdrop in unflattering lighting and clothing; Post-surgery, she is portrayed favourably and appears content with her transformation.
The impact on conversations can be observed in interviewing Korean women. In a Vice interview, one woman states that “in Korea, we call doing your eyes and nose the “basics” — they’re the standard procedures” and thus are “no big deal” (Standen, 2013, para. 4, para. 5). In interview videos, a similar ideology can be found. When asked if they would be willing to undergo a drastic surgical transformation for free even if it left no resemblance to their former self, two women shown in figure 7 admit they would do it, commenting that they would instead enjoy living as a new person, a sentiment common among young Korean women. Remarks such as these illustrate the effects of media manipulation on conversations about surgery.
Conclusion
The media has a powerful effect on audiences through the implications of the messages it delivers but also due to its ability to construct a form of reality that it can propagate to viewers. This can alter general understandings in accordance with the media’s commercial agenda. Through mass distribution, it can additionally create norms and standardized ideologies, which constructs the connotation of certain topics. The power of the media is particularly prominent in a highly digitally immersed and hyper-competitive culture such as Korea. There, the media functions to perpetuate a particular beauty standard through their construction of a figured world and normative behaviour. This culture, which has largely accepted cosmetic surgery as a normal task in order to beget life benefits, was formed through the excessive exposure to plastic surgery advertisements, TV shows, beautiful idolized figures and surgery beneficiaries both in the digital and physical world. This adopted ideology is consequently reflected in conversations when one’s family and friends also relay media messages. Through discourse analysis, this paper was able to describe the ways in which images released by the South Korean media have created a beauty standard and certain ideologies. As well audience studies aided in explaining how this message was interpreted by audiences and was able to prosper. In the interest of mental health and body positivity, those in power should overlook the economic benefits in order to relieve pressure and tension in society, particularly regarding physical appearance. From this paper, researchers can benefit from the presentation of a general template as to how the media can produce a strong effect on audiences. Moreover, despite the immense pressure for conformity, many in the country refuse to undergo surgical enhancements. It would be of interest for researchers to investigate how and why certain individuals refuse the message presented by the media in order to discover the limits of media power.
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