Energy and The Second Law Of Thermodynamics’

According to physics’, work is defined different than the laymen’s term of the word. The term potential energy does not mean that it can be a potential energy source either. Anyone who has the ability of harnessing potential energy, has the capability of using potential energy. There are limits’ for thermal energy concerning what can be transferred or transformed, from one system to another through the work process or available energy. Besides thermal energy, there are also other forms’ of energy that can not be transformed or transferred within a system too. On the other hand, all other forms’ of energy can be transformed or transferred into thermal energy without any limitations’. Rest mass is any object that is stationary, and all rest mass has the same amount of mass as energy. When transferred into energy, sometimes’, rest mass gets smaller in size. It does not loose neither the amounts’ of mass nor energy, it stays the same. When torque is applied to a flywheel, it implies that the mass of the universe contributes to the energy within the universe. These changes’ can be measured with Einstein’s “Theory of Relativity”.

When the sun transforms’ energy into other forms’ of energy it does not loose mass, instead the mass just changes form. The only way for the sun’s mass to change form is if energy escapes into its surrounding atmosphere as radiant energy. When torque is not going into a flywheel energy is released, and this is energy transfer. Energy can only increase or decrease when transferred, and it can not be created or destroyed, but transferred from one system to another. New forms’ of energy can not be defined arbitrarily either, it must be transformable to or from a predictable amount of some form of energy. The same units’ used by other forms of energy must be seen, to indicate how much energy it represents. If a new form of energy can not transform the mass of a system to the equal amount of its energy, then it is not energy.

We are not able to measure how much heat or work is within an object, but we can measure how much is transferred between objects’. Determining which side of the transfer they are viewed on, this can be done by measuring them as positives’ or negatives’. Potential energy is measured as positives or negatives’ according to if it is similar or greater than the energy of a specific base state or configuration. Two bodies’ that interact but are far apart are measured at zero or greater than zero, because they are measured in comparison to the base state of zero energy. Usually wave energy, radiant energy, sound energy, kinetic energy and rest energy are measured this way. The most common ways for energy to be transferred is through heat and work. Energy can also be transferred, through generating electricity and chemical reaction.

There are different kinds’ of energy, kinetic, potential, mechanical, chemical, electromagnetic, radiant, nuclear and ionized binding. There is also elastic, gravitational, intrinsic mass and thermal energy. Animals’, plants’, and humans, all need oxygen, carbon monoxide, and food, which are considered available energy. Heat and work are also energy, they are not properties’ within a system, but a process by which energy is transferred. Classic mechanics distinguished kinetic energy, by figuring out where potential energy’s position and function is within an object. This can be influenced by other objects’, particles’ and their positions’, within the same field too. This includes gravitational energy, within a gravitational force. Nuclear energy that utilizes potential energy from nuclear and weak force. Electromagnetic from electromagnetic fields’ as well. Potential energy is merely stored and positioned as an object within a field. Lifting an object against gravity performs work on the object, and creates gravitational potential energy. If the object falls gravity begins to do work on the object and it becomes kinetic energy. Specific forms of energy resulting from stretching, deformation of solid objects, and energies’ at microscopic levels’ with disordered motions’ of particles’, are elastic, chemical and thermal energies’.

On basic levels’ energy works in the same way that torque works with a flywheel. There have been attempts’ to categorize all forms’ of energy into either kinetic or potential energy, but they depend on the notion of length scale. Dependence on link scales’ are non problematic, as long as the scales’ are decoupled. When they are coupled, they become problematic and confusing though. There are a variety of energies’, mixed between both kinetic and potential energy. Elastic energy and chemical energy are both dependent on electric potential energy. These are stored and released in reservoirs’ of electric potential energy. Between the electrons’, molecules and atomic nuclei that attract them. When friction converts microscopic work into microscopic thermal energy, the Theory of Relativity and its speed for defining kinetic energy is problematic. Due to the body’s motion, energy isn’t being contributed to the total energy, like in classical speeds’.

Energy is measured with the International System of Units’, commonly referred to as the S.I. Unit of Joules. Work done by one body on another is force, and Joule is force multiplied by distance. Force equals S.I. Unit Newton, and distance equals S.I. Unit Meter, giving one Joule. One S.I. Unit of power is also energy per unit of time, the watt and the Joule per second. So if one Joule is one watt second, then three thousand and six hundred Joules equal one watt hour. There are also other forms’ of measurement in science, but they are usually converted into S.I. Units, and there are conversion tables for them.

When huge steam powered engines’ were used, it was discovered that energy was being wasted by repeatedly cooling and heating the cylinders’. Introducing the separate condenser lowered energy waste, cost and improved power and efficiency. The piston in a rotating beam engine is mounted vertically, and the piston rod drives the beam while another rod drives the flywheel. One on each side of the beam. The rotation of the flywheel is adjusted with a fixed axle, allowing only one axis for each rotation. The flywheel is only a spinning disk or wheel, that produces kinetic or “rotational” energy. Energy is stored in the rotor and according to the design of the flywheel, kinetic energy is proportionate to the ratio of hoop stress, density and mass of the material.

Hoop Stress is the mechanical stress applied in a perpendicular direction of the the radius of the material. Along with axle stress and radial stress, it is a component of the stress tensor in cylindrical coordinates’. Cylindrical coordinates’ are usually useful to decompose any force applied to an object with rotational symmetry, into components’ parallel to the cylindrical coordinates’. These components’ of force apply corresponding stress, radial stress, axial stress and hoop stress respectively. The amount of energy that can be safely stored in a rotor is determined by the hoop stress, and the point when the rotor begins to shatter or wrap.

None of this considers rimmed flywheels’ or the phenomena of procession though, which are more complex and occurs in flywheels’ that are in vehicles’. The rimmed flywheel will burst at a much lower rotary speed, than a disc flywheel of the same weight and diameter. For minimal weight and high energy storing capacity, a flywheel may be made of high strength steel and designed as a tapered disk. Thick at the center and thin at the rim. Procession is the change in orientation of the rotational axis of a rotating body.

In physics there are two types of procession, torque free and torque induced. Torque induced procession is a phenomena in which the axis of a spinning object describes a cone in space, when an external torque is applied to it. All rotating objects’ can experience procession if the speed of the rotation and the magnitude of the external torque are constant. The spin axis will move at right angles’ that would intuitively result from the external torque. When a top spins, its weight is acting downwards from its center of mass and the normal force of the ground is pushing up on it at the point of contact with the support. These two forces produce torque, which causes the top to process. The behavior of any spinning objects’, simply obey the law of inertia by resisting any change in direction.

Flywheels’ retain rotational energy and have moments’ of inertia which are significant and causes resistance to changes’ in speed. The amount of energy stored, is proportionate to the square of its rotational speed. Torque transfers energy to the flywheel and the flywheel releases energy as torque to the mechanical load. When energy is transferred to the flywheel, speed increases, and when energy is released from the flywheel speed decreases. When the original energy source is not continuous, the flywheel supplies continuous energy, and works when torque is and isn’t being applied. When torque is being applied the flywheel stores energy, and when torque isn’t applied it releases energy. Flywheels’ used in riveting machines’ deliver intermittent pulses of energy. Storing accumulated amounts’ of energy over a period of time, and at a rate that is compatible with the original energy source. Releasing a higher amount of energy in a shorter period of time.