Tim Berners-Lee — the man who created the internet

Today, we will talk about a true “living classic” of information technology, Tim Berners-Lee. He is a genuine enthusiast of scientific progress. Giving what we now call the “internet” to people for free was a real feat, and he was not just casually granted the title of “Sir.” Like a true knight, he raised questions about responsibility on the web. Let’s dive into the history of the “web” and the “spider” who wove it.

Tim Berners-Lee Begins

Our story does not begin with the birth of a child destined to change the world. It begins in 1952 at a Christmas party held by Ferranti, a British electronics company, where Mary Lee Woods and Conway Berners-Lee, two mathematicians and experienced practitioners in working with early computers, met. A year later, they were working together on the Ferranti Mark 1 computer, and they got married that same year. They would go on to have 63 years of life together, achieving many scientific discoveries and practical achievements, and earning the status of “grandparents of the internet.” They recalled this status with pride, especially since their son, Timothy John Berners-Lee, was born in 1955. The couple had four children in total, but today we focus on their firstborn. I covered his mother in a previous article.

From a young age, Tim Berners-Lee was drawn to modern technology. His “first love” was trains. He had a model railway, but the games played by the son of two mathematicians and programmers were unique. In school, Tim created separate electronic devices to control his trains and followed the development of transistor technology, which was innovative and cutting-edge at the time.

As a teenager, Tim was drawn to science fiction, and he was particularly impressed by Arthur Clarke’s story “Dial F for Frankenstein,” in which computers were networked together to form a living human brain. When the story was published, Tim was only 10 years old, but the idea of connecting computers captivated him forever.

His interest in electronics was complemented by physics, which Tim studied at the Queen’s College of Oxford University. He always warmly remembers his university, especially the personalized programs offered by many professors.

In 1976, after graduating from university, Tim began his career. It was not the easiest path: for the first two years, Berners-Lee worked as an engineer at Lessey Telecommunications Ltd in Poole, England, where he developed software, transaction distribution systems, and message relays. He also worked with barcodes. Tim later recalled that they had a machine with a barcode scanner that had to be taken around a supermarket to scan product barcodes, and underneath the machine was a car battery. The network quickly received information about how much stock they had and which products were selling faster, sending those products to specific stores directly, bypassing the store’s own stock. This was the “computer revolution of supermarket management.” He spent the next two years at DG Nash Ltd, where he was responsible for creating a multitasking operating system.

In 1980, Tim worked for the first time at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) and wrote the INQUIRE program, which included many elements that would later appear in the World Wide Web. He worked at CERN for only six months. Let’s take a small detour, as CERN would become a key place in Tim’s life. What was CERN in 1980?

It was a huge corporation with 10,000 people, all with different tasks and equipment, using different software (so diverse that there was no common language or style for creating software). It wasn’t just one room or even one city! It was a group of institutes, organizations, and institutions that had to exchange information, and they had local networks connected together for this purpose. Most importantly, the level of training and computer literacy among these people was very high.

Out of these 10,000 employees, only about 3,000 worked permanently at CERN, while the rest worked for multiple institutions. Moreover, the average tenure at CERN was about two years, after which a person would leave and… a part of the information would be lost!

Tim Berners-Lee attempted to address the problem of preserving this information by creating the INQUIRE program, which was, roughly speaking, a kind of electronic filing cabinet with “cards” containing hyperlinks. These hyperlinks established connections with other cards containing vital information.

For example:

• Where is this module used?
• Who wrote this code? Where do they work?
• What documents exist on this concept?
• Which laboratories are included in this project?
• What systems depend on this device?
• What documents mention this?

Simplifying greatly, INQUIRE solved tasks similar to modern Wikipedia, by systematizing information and creating connections between blocks. Changes to any block were reflected in each card. Any scientist could create such a card and establish necessary connections, but it was impossible to create a completely new card without establishing connections.

Sounds wonderful, right? Especially in 1980. However, there were significant drawbacks to the program. One of the main issues was that all information was contained within a single database; INQUIRE had no access to other databases outside the organization. The database needed to be systematically updated. Very few scientists used this system, and Tim himself did not seek to “advertise” it or make it widely available.

However, dear readers, remember that Tim Berners-Lee’s contract was only for six months. Once it expired, he left CERN, spending three years at Image Computer Systems Ltd, where he worked on software for real-time operating systems.

In 1984, Tim was invited back to CERN, facing once again the task of systematization and interaction between different elements of the institute, which he had already tried to solve. He actively resumed work on INQUIRE. The key task was that the program should become multi-user and cross-platform, gaining access to external links. Some people mistakenly believe that Tim Berners-Lee created hypertext, but that is not the case. He built his World Wide Web on its application, making it not just popular but essential. But let’s return to the first steps Tim took after returning to CERN as a permanent employee.

Since 1984, Tim Berners-Lee’s main task was to solve the problem of updating information in real time. His work was complicated by the specificity of CERN itself, where people involved in development came and went. Tim developed a tool for his program to create distributed systems (remote procedure calls in real time). The INQUIRE program was mainly used to connect all information about all project participants. Tim later recalled:

“I realized that much of project coordination boiled down to keeping information up-to-date and keeping everyone informed of changes. At the same time, I realized that I spent a significant amount of time figuring out the details of the systems others were using.”

Tim had a specific need: to create a version of the program similar to INQUIRE, but accessible to everyone. The idea was to create a scalable possibility for collaborative and independent work by user groups who would have an automatically updated platform for sharing hypertext materials. Thus, in response to the problems with one program, Tim conceived the key concept of the World Wide Web.

Tim Berners-Lee Rises

In 1989, CERN completed work on the Large Electron-Positron Collider (LEP). Work began on the Large Hadron Collider. The institute had an incredible need for a mechanism for fast, simple, and “mobile” communication.

It was at this point that Tim Berners-Lee proposed his concept of the “World Wide Web,” becoming known and famous. We got the internet and started posting cat pictures there…

But in practice, things weren’t quite like that. Tim did indeed propose his concept. It was not just an idea but a full-fledged proposal that did not yet have a name. This was a project based on hypertext. Tim spent a whole year writing notes and proposals but received refusals. CERN refused to work on Tim Berners-Lee’s project. However, his immediate supervisor, Mike Sendall, gave informal permission to develop this concept during work hours and using work equipment.

The emphasis on equipment is not accidental. At that time, NeXT Computer (and its slightly improved version, NeXTcube) was being produced. These computers were sold to individuals for $10,000 and to universities for $6,500. Considering this was in 1990, the difference was, to put it mildly, noticeable.

Tim worked on the second model, NeXTcube, at CERN, and his boss directly stated that he would not object if Tim bought this computer for personal use from the institute.

These computers were ideal for the birth of the World Wide Web. They had the NeXTSTEP operating system. The system’s features allowed W3 developers not to spend time on specifics like writing screen characters, font metrics or window displays. All of this was already included in the “native” OS. Additionally, the programming environment already included an editor and a number of fonts that could easily be turned into hypertext. From the start of focused work on the “web,” it took only one month to create a prototype browser, and a month later, an editor was operational. By Christmas 1990, what we call the “internet” already existed.

Let’s make another detour. You remember the diverse experience Tim Berners-Lee gained while working in the commercial sector? This experience was extremely important here! Tim recalled that CERN did not want to buy software! CERN employees were accustomed to creating and modernizing software, which was the problem Tim had long tried to solve. But he himself had extensive experience working in the software creation industry and made great efforts to convince CERN to buy the necessary software.

However, Tim could not successfully finish his “war.” He had to develop versions for NeXT, PC, Mac, and various workstations and terminals. CERN simply was not ready to spend money on software or equipment unless absolutely necessary. The “World Wide Web” was not the first project of its kind, and others failed within CERN itself.

Tim used a technical trick. He created gateways for his creation to existing systems. The gateway technology itself was groundbreaking; it was the embryo of the internet we know. In 1990, Tim created the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).

It all started with CERN’s telephone directory, a database stored in an outdated format. The person responsible for it, Bernd Pollermann, was tasked with making the data accessible to everyone. Tim and Bernd created the first server to store a hypertext version of the data.

They were helped by Nicola Pellow, a student intern at the time, responsible for the client side and the development of the first browser’s interface, specifically porting the browser to other platforms… Robert Cailliau was responsible for adapting it to the Macintosh. Robert Cailliau deserves a separate long read. Here, we’ll only mention that he proposed using the hypertext system for CERN documentation even before meeting Tim. Robert can rightly be called a “co-creator” of the internet, as he and Tim accomplished the most important thing: securing all necessary documents for project funding!

The World Wide Web was born! But from the moment of its birth, it was under threat of extinction, and it was saved by… the internet!

I remind you, dear readers, that the internet had existed for over 20 years. ARPANET, NSFNET, and many hundreds of much smaller networks already existed. The IRC protocol had already been developed, and chats existed. The internet was actively used via FTP.

And then, in Usenet and alt.hypertext newsgroups, information was posted about the creation of a server and the possibility of access for NeXTStep users. Tim recalled that Usenet users were “vivid and strange” at that time. They were highly competent and supported interesting material. The World Wide Web project began receiving a substantial amount of feedback, including criticism, such as comparing WWW to HyperCard (a hypermedia system from Apple). But HyperCard lost the popularity war because it was limited to users’ local hard drive files, while the World Wide Web was not. After the publication, there was a serious wave of moral and intellectual support. People provided Tim with the source codes of various necessary projects. As he later wrote, “Internet people created the Web.”

At the same time, practical use of the internet began thanks to Louise Addis, a librarian at the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC). This library created a website based on WWW ideas, greatly facilitating the work of physicists on the project and giving them access to vast amounts of relevant and important information. The next step was working with the libraries of the high-energy physics community (HEP).

Despite apparent successes, Tim later recalled that he and Robert were teased by colleagues because the “World Wide Web” was hardly used within CERN, for which it was created! Initially, scientists did not understand or accept the benefits of the web. It simply became “one of many.”

However, it cannot be said that the project faced obstacles; on the contrary, versions for Windows and Mac were required. Resources for porting were simply not provided. Volunteers, especially student volunteers, came to the rescue. Nicola Pellow was not the only one. A team of students from Helsinki University of Technology developed a browser for X Window called Erwise. Pei-Yuan Wei, a student from Berkeley, created the ViolaWWW internet browser in his own programming language, Viola, based on Unix. Tom Bruce, the creator of the Cello browser, adapted it for Microsoft Windows. At that time, Microsoft Windows was particularly popular among lawyers, and they, too, needed their browser to distribute legal information. And for Macintosh, Robert Cailliau, whom you already know, was working on it.

This was when the internet began to grow significantly! Dear readers, from here on, we will merge the terms “internet” and “World Wide Web” and continue using only the word “internet.”

The ViolaWWW browser was warmly received at CERN and the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). A student named Marc Andreessen (now the founder of Andreessen Horowitz) and the Software Design Group staff decided to create their browser for X Window. It was called Mosaic. The browser’s unique feature was its active work with feedback and instant release of patches for problems. In 1993, Mosaic was ported to Microsoft Windows and Macintosh, and it won the race for the title of “most popular browser.” The internet began to be perceived through Mosaic for a long time. The internet could no longer be stopped!

You might ask why am I telling yyou the story of the first browsers instead of talking about Tim Berners-Lee? The answer is simple. Tim’s main achievement, the internet, whose “authorship” is often attributed to Tim, could easily have “failed” or remained just a technical tool. All the people, enthusiasts, and students who voluntarily and freely helped and created the first programs for the emerging internet can also, albeit partially, consider themselves creators of the World Wide Web and deserve to be remembered.

With great power comes great responsibility

However, let’s return to Tim. The internet was created. It was created free and open, but it didn’t just offer opportunities! Tim Berners-Lee began speaking about the dangers of the internet as early as 1993–1994.

For example, issues of anonymity. In 1994, there was a funny situation. CERN received a letter requesting to add a new server with information about a large university to the list of servers. Shortly after, another letter arrived with… the same text! After prolonged correspondence, it turned out that only one party had official approval from the university, while the other had a better server. In the end, both servers were added, labeled “University” and “University Underground.” The problem of information verification was evident, and the need to confirm the status of official information was undeniable.

In 1994, there was also a serious problem with filling the internet with information. Tim noted the fear of the abundance of network information and the time wasted searching for it while reading (quote) “a lot of rubbish.” Tim himself gave an example: specific information may not be available on the internet, such as “maps of the Battle of Hastings… You’re unlikely to find them there.” He emphasized that people fill the internet. Even then, issues of information security and confidentiality were highlighted.

I find it very curious how the internet is perceived as both a mechanism for uniting and dividing people. In 1994, Tim Berners-Lee wrote:

“The network can provide equality by giving anyone access to information. It doesn’t matter whether the local library is well-equipped or if someone studies in a city with a university: anyone with access to the network can, in principle, find any information. However, the internet can both provide equality and divide people. For example, if someone doesn’t have the means to pay for internet access or if their education level doesn’t allow them to use the system. They may lose access to relevant information altogether.”

Thirty years have passed since then, and the problems are still present. These issues have not disappeared, and Tim continues to work on them.

Since 1994, the World Wide Web Consortium has been working to ensure that the network remains unified at the standards level while continuing to evolve. As of 2023, the organization has become a nonprofit.

In 1999, Tim published the book “Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web,” where he detailed the history of the internet and clearly highlighted issues of responsibility, plagiarism, and fraud. He also wrote about the role of government structures in the modern network while continuing to defend its free status.

In 2004, then a Southampton University employee, Timothy John Berners-Lee received a knighthood from the now-deceased Queen of England, and a year later, he published a second book titled “On the Semantic Web: Exploiting the Full Potential of the World Wide Web.” The Semantic Web is Tim Berners-Lee’s main modern scientific and practical development. It is a specific version of the World Wide Web where data can be processed using special programs, i.e., any applications, regardless of platform and programming language, will be able to access and process text content.

Since 2009, Tim has been working “with” or “for” the UK government, depending on your preference, on publishing open data online. In the same year, he created the World Wide Web Foundation, a nonprofit organization that aims to make the internet safe, including in terms of political influence. Jumping ahead, in 2019, the organization was able to push through a program called the “Contract for the Web,” aimed at combating fakes, political manipulation, and other misconduct. Although signed by industry giants, the program… doesn’t seem to perform its functions effectively in practice. In 2012, with the help of the British government, Tim established the Open Data Institute, a nonprofit organization aimed at supporting innovative developments, which, like several other organizations created by Tim, still exists today.

In the same year, 2012, Tim received one of the best awards. The quote from his first website, “This is for everyone,” was displayed in the stands at the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games in London when Tim himself was on the field, working on a complete replica of the very computer where the modern internet began.

Currently, Tim is working on a project called Solid (Social Linked Data), aimed at decentralizing the network and significantly increasing user privacy. The project has been active since 2016 and has achieved some success, but we won’t go into detail here. Just recently, on March 12, 2024, Tim Berners-Lee wrote a cautionary letter on the internet’s 35th anniversary, once again addressing issues of power concentration and the departure from the old “spirit” of the internet. As you already understand, these problems are far from new. Within the Solid project, Tim proposes solutions, but… it is far too early to claim that he has succeeded.

The question is often raised: is this new decentralized internet necessary? And if so, why? This situation brings to mind when the familiar World Wide Web was being created. When already established and respected, Tim was told, “Why do you need this? What’s already in place works.” However, history took the path we know, and now we read this text on the internet that Tim created, and many dozens, if not hundreds, of people helped make this internet popular. Tim is now creating his “new” internet, and, as is often the case with stories about living people, we don’t know how his story will end. But Timothy John Berners-Lee has undoubtedly inscribed himself into the digital history of humanity during his lifetime.