The Etruscan Influence On Rome
The Etruscans were the one nation that had the most influence on ancient Rome. In this post, I look at how the Tuscans — as they were also known — influenced Rome’s politics, religion, economy, architecture, and even popular culture, based on the writings of the ancient Roman historian Livy.
But let’s start from the beginning.
Who were the Etruscans?
According to Livy, the Etruscans lived in 12 commonwealths that were spread from East to West of the northern part of what we know today as the Italian peninsula. They founded some of the wealthiest cities in the peninsula, including Veii, Caere, Clusium, and Tarquinii.
Livy writes:
“Before the Roman supremacy, the power of the Tuscans was widely extended both by sea and land. How far it extended over the two seas by which Italy is surrounded like an island is proved by the names, for the nations of Italy call the one the ‘Tuscan Sea,’ from the general designation of the people, and the other the ‘Atriatic,’ from Atria, a Tuscan colony. The Greeks also call them the ‘Tyrrhene’ and the ‘Adriatic.’ The districts stretching towards either sea were inhabited by them. They first settled in twelve cities on this side of the Apennines mountain range by the western sea. Afterward, they founded twelve colonies beyond the Apennines, corresponding to the number of the mother cities.”
Where did the Etruscans come from?
Besides telling us a lot about their settlements, flourishing cities, and ongoing conflict with Rome and other neighboring nations, Livy provides little information about the origin of the Etruscans.
As Livy begins narrating the history as he understood it, Aeneas, the father of the Latin nation, arrives from Troy and finds the Etruscans already settled on the land. Indeed, some of their cities, particularly Caere, were already flourishing. The ancient historian describes a few times how, in the early days of Rome, the Etruscans were considered a powerful nation in the region.
For example, during the time of Tullus Hostilius, Rome’s third king who reigned between 672 and 641 BCE, Livy quotes Mettius Fufetius, the dictator of the Latin city of Alba Longa, reminding him of the powerful common enemy they shared, the Etruscans.
Livy quotes the Alban dictator saying:
“I want to give you a warning, Tullus. You know, you especially who are nearer to them, the greatness of the Etruscan State, which hems us both in; their immense strength by land, still more by sea. Now remember, once you have given the signal to engage, our two armies will fight under their eyes so that when we are wearied and exhausted, they may attack us both, victor and vanquished alike.”
Still, in another part of his text, Livy describes Etruria as the most powerful military force.
Livy writes:
“Tullus proclaimed war against the Sabines, a nation at that time second only to the Etruscans in numbers and military strength.”
However, even with all these mentions of the power of Etruria, Livy makes little attempt to tell us where exactly this race of people came from. This could be either because he didn’t think it was important to his readers or he never came across any source of that knowledge.
The political influence of Etruscans on Rome.
The first political contribution of Etruria to Rome was its identity. When Aeneas arrived in Italy and formed an alliance with a local aboriginal tribe, the threat of the Etruscans’ power forced him to create the identity of Latin for the two peoples.
Livy writes:
“In a short time, the Aborigines and Trojans became involved in a war with Turnus, the king of the Rutulians. Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, the leader of the aboriginal tribe, had been betrothed to Turnus before the arrival of Aeneas, and, furious at finding she had been offered to the stranger, he declared war against both Latinus and Aeneas. Neither side could congratulate themselves on the result of the battle; the Rutulians were defeated, but the victorious Aborigines and Trojans lost their leader, Latinus. Feeling their need of allies, Turnus and the Rutulians had recourse to the celebrated power of the Etruscans and Mezentius, their king, who was reigning at Caere, a wealthy city in those days. From the first, he had felt anything but pleasure at the rise of the new city, and now he regarded the growth of the Trojan state as much too rapid to be safe to its neighbors, so he welcomed the proposal to join forces with the Rutulians. To keep the Aborigines from abandoning him in the face of this strong coalition and to secure their being not only under the same laws, but also the same designation, Aeneas called both nations by the common name of Latins, after his dead father-in-law Latinus.”
Through the Latins, Romulus came into existence as a descendant of Aeneas and Lavinia several generations later and went on to build the new city of Rome.
Right from the start, Romans borrowed political organization from the Etruscans. For example, Livy tells us that it is from the Etruscans that Romans acquired the idea of lictors (special bodyguards for the ruler). They also borrowed the use of a special dress as well as a folding chair made of ivory used by those holding political offices.
Livy writes:
“Romulus surrounded himself with a greater state, and in particular, he called into his service twelve lictors. Some think that he fixed upon this number from the number of the birds who foretold his sovereignty, but I am inclined to agree with those who think that this class of public officers was borrowed from the same people from whom the ‘sella curulis’ (ivory chair for the leader) and the ‘toga praetexta’ (special dress for a leader) were adopted — their neighbors, the Etruscans.”
It is also important to point out that two of the six kings who ruled over Rome after Romulus had some Etruscan origins.
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, who reigned as the fifth king between 616 and 578 BCE, had come from Tarquinii, an Etruscan city. Even though his father was a Greek, his mother was an Etruscan, and he had been born in that tribe and had an Etruscan wife, Tanaquil. Later on, after his rule, his son Lucius Tarquinius Superbus became king.
Livy writes:
“During the reign of Ancus, a wealthy and ambitious man named Lucumo arrived in Rome, mainly with the hope and desire of winning high distinction, for which no opportunity had existed in Tarquinii, since there also he was an alien. He was the son of Demaratus, a Corinthian who had been driven from home by a revolution and who happened to settle in Tarquinii.”
Lucumo built a network in the city, and when Ancus died, he was popular enough to be elected the next king, and he became known as Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.
In fact, after the expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the son of Priscus, in 509 BCE, the Etruscans tried to reinstate him, and their primary motivation was that they were returning one of their own to the throne in Rome.
Livy writes:
“Superbus visited the cities of Etruria and appealed for help; in particular, he implored the people of Veii and Tarquinii not to allow one to perish before their eyes who was of the same blood with them.”
He managed to persuade the people of Veii and Tarquinii, who proceeded to attack Rome but failed. Superbus moved to Clusium, another Etruscan city, and asked for help from its king, Porsena.
Livy writes:
“The Tarquins had now taken refuge with Porsena, the king of Clusium, whom they sought to influence by entreaty mixed with warnings. They implored him not to allow men of Etruscan race, of the same blood as himself, to wander as penniless exiles.”
Porsena attacked Rome, put it under siege, and demanded the city accept Superbus back as king. The Romans managed to persuade Porsena to abandon Superbus.
Throughout the existence of the Roman Republic, its wars with Etruria and other nations influenced the internal conflicts between the patricians and plebeians. Often, the plebeians made allegations that the patricians conspired with the ruling class of the other nations, including Etruria, to start wars to distract them from demanding rights at home.
How did Etruria influence religion in Rome?
Rome did pick many of the religious practices of the Etruscans. One that stands out is the reading of signs from the gods from the movement of the birds in the sky using specially trained individuals known as augurs.
It is the services of the Etruscan augurs that Romulus and his brother Remus used to determine who was going to be the leader of the new city before a fight erupted between them and Remus was killed.
Many centuries later, it remained a common practice among Romans to invite augurs from Etruria to help them discover the gods’ wishes by reading nature. For example, while the foundation for the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was being dug under the instruction of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus in the 530s BCE, Livy claims a human head was unearthed, and the king needed an explanation.
Livy writes:
“It is said that while they were digging the foundations of the temple, a human head came to light with the face perfect; this appearance unmistakably portended that the spot would be the stronghold of empire and the head of all the world. This was the interpretation given by the soothsayers in the City, as well as by those who had been called into council from Etruria.”
Still, regarding religion, some of the gods Rome came to revere were likely originally Etruscan gods. An example of one such god was Queen Juno. At the defeat of Veii in 396 BCE, her statue was moved from the fallen city to Rome, and a major temple was built for her under the instruction of the dictator Marcus Furius Camillus.
Livy writes:
“When all that belonged to man had been carried away from Veii, they began to remove from the temples the votive gifts that had been made to the gods, and then the gods themselves; but this they did as worshippers rather than as plunderers. The deportation of Queen Juno to Rome was entrusted to a body of men selected from the whole army, who, after performing their ablutions and arraying themselves in white vestments, reverently entered the temple and, in a spirit of holy dread, placed their hands on the statue, for it was as a rule only the priest of one particular house who, by Etruscan usage, touched it.”
Etruscan influence on Roman architecture.
It is generally agreed by historians that Roman architecture borrowed significantly from the Etruscan building skillset. This went as far as copying the city plans.
Livy writes:
“Servius Tullius, the sixth king, surrounded the City with a mound and moats and wall; in this way, he extended the ‘pomoerium.’ Looking only at the etymology of the word, they explain ‘pomoerium’ as ‘postmoerium;’ but it is rather a ‘circamoerium.’ For the space which the Etruscans of old, when founding their cities, consecrated in accordance with auguries and marked off by boundary stones at intervals on each side, as the part where the wall was to be carried was to be kept vacant so that no buildings might connect with the wall on the inside, and on the outside, some ground might remain virgin soil untouched by cultivation.”
Indeed, the Romans also employed engineers from Etruria to do construction in the city. An example is when the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was being constructed during the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.
Livy writes:
“Determined to finish his temple, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus sent for workmen from all parts of Etruria and not only used the public treasury to defray the cost but also compelled the plebeians to take their share of the work.”
Influence of Etruria on the economy of Rome.
In terms of economic influence, Rome often had to rely on Etruria for corn supply. Livy mentions many times, especially when Rome faced famine, that the city had to import corn from Etruria. Indeed, at one time, the corn from Etruria was used to bribe the people to make one Spurius Maelius king. He was, however, killed through the orders of Cincinnatus, who had been appointed dictator to stop him.
Livy writes:
“Through the instrumentality of his clients and foreign friends, Spurius Maelius purchased corn in Etruria, and this very circumstance, I believe, hampered the Government in their efforts to cheapen the market. He distributed this corn gratis and so won the hearts of the plebeians by this generosity that wherever he moved, conspicuous and consequential beyond an ordinary mortal, they followed him, and this popularity seemed to his hopes a sure earnest of a consulship. But the minds of men are never satisfied with Fortune’s promises, and he began to entertain loftier and unattainable aims; he knew the consulship would have to be won in the teeth of the patricians, so he began to dream of royalty.”
Popular culture influence of Etruria on Rome.
Livy does record an era when Romans adopted music and some form of dancing from the Etruscans. The movement was triggered by a plague that had attacked the city and turned people into superstitious practices, which included music and dances from their neighbors, the Etruscans.
Livy writes:
“But the violence of the epidemic was not alleviated by any aid from either men or gods, and it is asserted that as men’s minds were completely overcome by superstitious terrors, they introduced, amongst other attempts to placate the wrath of heaven, scenic representations, a novelty to a nation of warriors who had up until then only had the games of the Circus. They began, however, in a small way, as nearly everything does, and small as they were, they were borrowed from abroad. The players were sent for from Etruria; there were no words, no mimetic action; they danced to the measures of the flute and practiced graceful movements in Tuscan fashion.”
The end of Etruscan civilization.
By all measures, Etruscans were a major force in the Italian peninsula for centuries. They built some of the wealthiest and most powerful cities, as Livy records. However, their power and influence waned towards the end of the millennium.
Their end primarily came in the form of losing to Rome, which largely became possible because of the lack of unity in the Etruscan Federation.
For example, this was apparent as Rome attacked Veii in 396 BCE. The rest of the Etruscan cities could not agree on coming to its aid.
Livy writes:
“While this was going on, the national council of Etruria met at the Fane of Voltumna. The Capenates and the Faliscans demanded that all the cantons of Etruria should unite in common action to raise the siege of Veii; they were told in reply that assistance had been previously refused to the Veientines because they had no right to seek help from those whose advice they had not sought in a matter of such importance.”
Where did the Etruscans go as a people?
Livy records many becoming Roman citizens, and many were sold into slavery when their cities fell. It is safe to assume that most of the Etruscans were swallowed into the emerging Roman empire, and others could have moved to other parts of the region.
