Although the world is increasingly secular, myth still makes up the lower strata of the psyche. Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung believed that we carry “primordial images” in our subconscious inner worlds out of which we make meaning of our external experiences.
The opposing viewpoint argued that the mind is at birth tabula rasa, a blank slate that is molded by experience and environment. Whatever the case, it is undeniable that myth and symbol play a role in our day to day lives and our culture, whether we are conscious of it or not.
The myth I’d like to begin with is a fairly old one, the earliest known written example of which dates from the late 8th, or early 7th centuries BCE: the Myth of Prometheus. This is a Greek myth in which it’s related how man (not woman) came to possess fire; thus, power and knowledge, and ultimately, how men came to be “rulers of the world”.
This particular version of the myth (because there are many different versions with variations in language and detail) is taken from Stories of the Gods and Heroes by Sally Benson, who adapted her interpretation predominantly from The Age of Fable by Thomas Bulfinch. Also, this adaptation of the myth uses the Roman names of the gods, for instance, Jupiter instead of the Greek name, Zeus, and Minerva instead of Athena.
The reason I chose this myth to begin this series, which is, ultimately, meant as an examination of modern culture and myths, is because it still has a major influence on us today, though we may not be totally aware of it.
The figure of Prometheus served as a mascot for the spirit of the French Revolution two millennia after Greece was conquered by the Romans. He was hailed as a symbol of triumph of reason over authoritarian religion, and 18th century Romantic poets viewed him as a dissenter over institutional tyranny. One of these poets, Lord Byron, praised the victory and glory of Prometheus in his poem of the same name.
Prometheus’ name is mentioned in reference to main characters, as names or aliases, in Ayn Rand’s novels Atlas Shrugged and Anthem, both manifestos for individualistic ideals, published in America in the 1940’s and 50’s. A gold sculpture of Prometheus graces the front of the GE building at Rockefeller Center in NY (where, coincidentally, there is also an Atlas sculpture). The frieze above the main entrance reads “Wisdom and Knowledge shall be the stability of thy times,” a phrase which comes from Isaiah 33:6 in the Bible, suggesting the use of two traditions, two myths, combined to emphasize the cultural importance of the figure of Prometheus.
More recently, Prometheus has been mentioned in songs, as a character in T.V. shows, novels, video games, and movies. Taking into account the prominence of the figure of Prometheus in history and modern culture, what is it that we take from the myth itself that inspires such frequent reference to the protagonist? In the interest of answering that question, here is the myth of Prometheus;
The beginning of the world was a time of great peace and happiness. All over the land seeds swelled and burst, and animals came into being. Horses roamed the plains, chipmunks and squirrels played in the trees, deer ran through the wood without fear, and the cats lay in the sun all day and padded softly through the wet grass at night. Fish appeared in the seas and rivers, and the birds were busy building nests. Only the dog was unhappy, because there was no one on earth for him to love.
Now at this time, there lived a god named Prometheus, who was one of the Titans. He had escaped punishment at the hands of Jupiter. He was a gigantic creature who could step across rivers as easily as men can step across brooks, and, in two strides, he could reach the top of the highest mountain. Prometheus and his brother, Epimetheus, had been selected to guard the animals as they came to life. And Epimetheus decided that he would give each animal a gift that would help it (sic) survive in the new wilderness. He gave wings to the birds, claws to the tiger, shells to the turtles, and to the others he gave courage, strength, speed and keenness of mind. Prometheus had promised his brother that he would approve these gifts after they were given, but, in the meantime, he had been thinking that there was need for a nobler animal than any which had sprung from the seeds that lay in the earth and the sea.
One day, as he was resting on the shore, he scooped up a handful of earth and, to amuse himself, began to form an image in the shape of the gods. He moistened it with water from the ocean so that it would hold together, and he modeled the figure standing upright, its face uplifted gazing at the heavens. In the handful of earth, he found a seed; it was different from any seed he had ever seen, larger and more shining. He washed it off in the sea and placed it in the exact center of the statue he had made. The sun beat down on the image, heating it, and a fresh breeze sprang from the sea, cooling it. Like a piece of pottery, it hardened and dried, and, inside, the seed grew and gave it life. The color of the earth faded from it, and it took on the reflections of all around it; blue from the ocean for the eyes, gold from the skies for the hair, the color of the pale sand for the skin, and deep red from the sunset for the lips. Prometheus called it Man.
Taking Man by the hand, Prometheus led him to his brother, Epimetheus, and asking him to bestow a gift, finer and more valuable than any other. Epimetheus hung his head in shame. The last gift, he said, was gone; he had given the giraffe a long neck so it could reach fruit from the tallest trees. While Man waited, naked and unarmed, Prometheus and his brother talked over what they should do. They finally decided to ask Minerva, goddess of wisdom, to help them. It was quite some time before they found her, but they finally came upon her seated at her loom, weaving robes for the goddesses, in the heart of an olive grove.
Hearing their problem, she agreed to accompany Prometheus to heaven where he might find something belonging to the gods that he could give to Man. They rode up into the sky and as they passed the chariot of Apollo, Prometheus dipped his torch into the sun, and, turning, descended quickly to earth. He handed the torch to Man and gave him fire, the most valuable gift of all. With it, men became the rulers of the world. They heated metals and formed weapons to protect themselves; they made tools to cultivate the fields; they built fires to heat their dwelling places. When the gods learned that Prometheus, a Titan, had stolen the fire from heaven, they became enraged. He had, they said, made the race of man too powerful by giving him this divine gift. Jupiter, hearing what Prometheus had done, ordered him chained to a rock on Mount Caucasus, face upward in the burning sun, where he lay while a vulture gnawed at his liver, which was renewed every time it was eaten.
Now, Prometheus knew a deadly secret, which, if he told it, would cause the downfall of Jupiter’s throne. What this secret was, no one today knows. For a moment, he thought he would reveal it to save himself, but, immediately, he acknowledged to himself that he had, indeed, stolen the fire from the gods. He accepted his punishment, scorning to tell the secret and comforting himself with the thought that he had given a divine gift: he sacrificed himself to Man whom he had created. (Benson, 24–28)
So, what concepts do we take from this myth today that influence our culture? First, we have the idea that humanity is very different from other, non-human animals. Prometheus creates humans as “a nobler animal.” This animal stems from a seed “different from any seed” Prometheus has seen, and resembles and stands upright like the gods, with “its face uplifted gazing at the heavens.” It’s as if this new breed of humans have foresight to predict the good fortune brought to them by Prometheus; they aspire to become godlike.
Furthermore, they do become godlike when Prometheus steals fire from Olympus and brings it to humans to use and benefit from, and “with it, they became the rulers of the world.” So it appears that humans have now usurped the position of the gods to take over control of the earth. Humans are dominant; the earth and animals are below them, subservient to them.
What does this imply about our relationship to nature? The myth tells us that fire gave us the first glimpse into the ability to control the natural world. With fire, humans “heated metals and formed weapons to protect themselves; they made tools to cultivate the fields; they built fires to heat their dwelling places.” These tools, early semblances of modern technology, give humans the ability to regulate and control, to begin the construction of “the line”, with nature on one side, and humans on the other.
I also noted earlier that the myth of Prometheus served as a vessel for the ideals of the French Revolution in which the absolute monarchy of France was toppled under the auspices of Enlightenment principles of reason, the pursuit of knowledge, and justice. Through this analogy, Jupiter, or Zeus, serves as the tyrannical monarch, who wants to preserve the power of the gods (the church) and deprive mankind (the French people) of its benefits. Prometheus is the hero of the myth, bestowing on the common man the ability to exercise his right to the power to learn, progress, and most importantly, the power of freedom from external control. He martyrs himself for his creation so that the conditions of Man’s existence might be improved.
This functional view of the myth is commented on by Pierre Hadot, a French philosopher and Historian of ideas, in his book, The Veil of Isis. In it, Hadot describes the myth of Prometheus as a parallel for a particular way of looking at nature, an attitude toward nature. He characterizes that attitude as “inspired by audacity, boundless curiosity, the will to power, and the search for utility” (96). We see these characteristics literally denoted in the myth; Prometheus is a courageous figure who usurps the power of the gods for the use, the utility, of Man.
If we look at the gods as symbolic of nature or natural principles, another way to interpret the myth is by viewing Prometheus as the thief of nature’s secrets. The knowledge of fire, meant to be a trait only the gods possess, is stolen and revealed to humanity. It is through this process that humans cease to be “of the earth”; they are now the equals of the gods. Further, if we look at the terminology the myth uses regarding the physical qualities of nature, we come to understand that fire not only makes them equals of the gods, but gives them the power to manipulate and control nature.
With fire, they “heated metals and formed weapons to protect themselves; they made tools to cultivate the fields; they built fires to heat their dwelling places.” Humans now have the ability to live separate from, even above, nature. With fire comes the knowledge of how nature works, and thus, how nature can be directed and utilized for the betterment of human endeavors.
Hadot uses another analogy for the Promethean attitude; nature as the goddess Isis veiled. In this metaphor, nature protects her “secrets” by covering them up. Prometheus unveils nature’s secrets when he penetrates the home of the gods and steals one of those secrets, fire, for his own purposes. That secret is then used by Man to further extract more secrets from physical nature; the secrets, or technologies, of metallurgy and weapon-making, agriculture, and the ability to defy climate with artificial means of heat.
I should note that Hadot doesn’t describe the “Promethean” way of looking at and interacting with nature as either superior or inferior. What Hadot does point out as important to bear in mind is, firstly, that this Promethean view is just one lens through which to perceive the human relationship to the natural world. Secondly, he emphasizes that the Promethean attitude has dominated our cultural ethics and values for most of our history, and thus the effects of the Promethean attitude have played a major role in our development as a culture, and are relevant to us today.
With only the example of this Promethean attitude from which to draw conclusions, it’s difficult to imagine another perspective, let alone how that differing perspective might change our feelings or behavior toward nature. As an alternative to the Promethean attitude, Hadot offers the Orphic, so named for the Greek mythical figure Orpheus, who was the son of the Muse, Calliope and was venerated as the patron of art, music, and poetry (D’Aulaire 101). Hadot describes the Orphic attitude as “inspired by respect in the face of mystery and disinterestedness” (96).
To put it in contemporary terms, if you were watching an action film with special effects, someone acting from the Promethean perspective would be bent on, even obsessed with, figuring out how those special effects were executed, while someone with the Orphic attitude would be more interested in enjoying the movie and the visual appeal, without trying to figure out how it was done. Hadot points out that neither is necessarily “better” than the other, and that both of these attitudes have characterized human relations with nature to some degree throughout human history. Just what role this attitude has played in our cultural evolution, how it has shaped society, and the influence it holds over our day to day lives is worth examining.
Sources
Benson, Sally. Stories of the Gods and Heroes. 12th ed. New York: The Dial Press, 1940.
D’Aulaire, Ingri & Edgar Parin. Book of Greek Myths. New York: Doubleday, 1962.
Hadot, Pierre. The Veil of Isis. Trans. Michael Chase. Cambridge: Harvard College, 2006.
