nsca cscs chapter 13 administration, scoring, and interpretation of selected tests

nsca cscs chapter 13 administration, scoring, and interpretation of selected tests

As discussed in chapter 12, the strength and conditioning
professional — often referred to as tester in this chapter —
who has a broad understanding of exercise science
can effectively choose and use tests and measurements
to make training program decisions that help athletes
optimize their physical preparation and maximize their
potential. To do this effectively, the tester must administer
tests correctly, analyze test data accurately, and
then combine the results of selected tests to generate an
athletic profile. This chapter covers these basic aspects
of testing performance-related parameters and provides
comprehensive age- and sport-specific descriptive and
normative data for selected tests.
Measuring Parameters
of Athletic Performance
Athleticism incorporates many physical abilities, some
of which are much more amenable to training than
others. Such abilities may be called components of
athletic performance, that is, the ability to respond
effectively to the various physical demands of the specific
sport or event. This section focuses on how each
component can be tested and highlights relevant issues.
Maximum Muscular Strength
(Low-Speed Strength)
Maximal strength tests usually involve relatively low
movement speeds and therefore reflect low-speed
muscular strength. In this case, muscular strength is
related to the force a muscle or muscle group can exert
in one maximal effort while maintaining proper form,
and it can be quantified by the maximum weight that
can be lifted once (the 1-repetition maximum [1RM])
in exercises such as the bench press or back squat,
the maximum force exerted isometrically (against an
immovable object) as measured with a transducer, or
the maximum force that can be exerted at a particular
isokinetic speed (5, 6, 31, 48, 70, 71, 73, 77, 90). As 1RM
tests do not require expensive equipment and reflect the
kind of dynamic ability necessary in sport, they are the
maximal strength tests of choice for most strength and
conditioning professionals.
In general, 1RM tests are administered after the athlete
has warmed up by performing a few sets of the test
exercise with submaximal loads, beginning with a relatively
light load. The first attempt is usually with approximately
50% of the athlete’s estimated 1RM weight.
After the athlete has rested enough to feel recovered
from the previous attempt (1–5 minutes, depending on the
difficulty of the attempt), the strength and conditioning
professional increases the weight somewhat, based on
the ease with which the previous trial was performed.
A skilled strength and conditioning professional should,
within three to five attempts following warm-up, be able
to find the athlete’s 1RM load to within a few percentage
points of the true value.
Anaerobic or Maximum Muscular
Power (High-Speed Strength)
High-speed muscular strength or maximal anaerobic
muscular power (or anaerobic power) is related to
the ability of muscle tissue to exert high force while
contracting at a high speed. Tests of such strength
and power are of very short duration, are performed
at maximal movement speeds, and produce very high
power outputs. High-speed maximal muscular power
tests are often called (maximal) anaerobic power tests.
Scores on high-speed muscular strength tests include
the 1RM of explosive exercises (e.g., the power clean,
snatch, push jerk), the height of a vertical jump, and
the time to sprint up a staircase (45, 70, 77, 90, 93).
As explosive exercise tests take about 1 second while
low-speed maximal strength tests generally require 2
to 4 seconds to complete, phosphocreatine and adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) stored in the active muscle(s)
are the primary energy sources for both types of tests.
Maintaining correct technique or form is also important
when measuring anaerobic power for both performance
validity and safety reasons.
??Most maximal muscular strength tests use
relatively slow movement speeds and therefore
reflect low-speed strength. Assessment
of high-speed muscular strength can involve
measuring the 1RM of explosive resistance
training exercises or the height of a vertical
jump.
Power output reflects both force and velocity. The
height of a jump is a function of the force put into the
ground and the velocity at which the athlete leaves the
ground. An athlete may not improve in jump height
after gaining body weight during a resistance training
cycle, making it appear that power output is unchanged.
However, because the athlete is heavier and propels the
body to the same height, indicating the same takeoff
velocity, an increase in power output is evident. This
applies to any test in which body weight is manipulated
(e.g., running up stairs). Moving a heavier body at the
same speed requires a higher power output.
An alternative class of anaerobic power tests involves
the use of a cycle ergometer. This type of test can be
advantageous for the strength and conditioning professional
in some injury situations in which running is
restricted or when the athlete participates in a non-bodyweight-
support sport such as rowing or cycling. The
most commonly used test of this type is the Wingate
anaerobic test. A field test protocol involves use of a
cycle ergometer with mechanical means of adjusting
resistance and measuring pedal revolutions and rate
(rpm). In a laboratory setting, an electronically instrumented
ergometer can simplify parameter measurement
and improve accuracy. Typical protocols involve a basic
warm-up followed by a 30-second test interval (27). In
this test, resistance is applied quickly after the individual
reaches a near-maximal pedaling rate (typically 90 to
110 rpm). The resistance applied is proportional to body
weight; the percentage is greater for trained athletes
than for individuals with less training. Work performed
is determined from the resistance value and number of
pedal revolutions. Power is generally calculated as work
divided by time for each 5-second time interval during
the 30-second test. Parameters typically calculated
include peak power, average power, and a fatigue index
such as a ratio of maximum to minimum interval power.
Norms for cycle ergometer tests are available (47, 73).
Anaerobic Capacity
Anaerobic capacity is the maximal rate of energy production
by the combined phosphagen and anaerobic glycolytic
energy systems for moderate-duration activities.
It is typically quantified as the maximal power output
during muscular activity between 30 and 90 seconds
using a variety of tests for the upper and lower body (27,
73, 90, 115), as opposed to maximal anaerobic power
tests, which last no longer than a few seconds.
Local Muscular Endurance
Local muscular endurance is the ability of certain muscles
or muscle groups to perform repeated contractions
against a submaximal resistance (11, 73). A test of local
muscular endurance should be performed in a continuous
manner for several seconds to several minutes without
the advantage of rest periods and without extraneous
body movements. Examples include performing a maximal
number of repetitions in the chin-up, parallel bar
dip, or push-up exercises or a resistance training exercise
using a fixed load (e.g., a percentage of an athlete’s 1RM
or body weight) (26, 64, 70, 73).
Aerobic Capacity
Aerobic capacity, also called aerobic power, is the
maximum rate at which an athlete can produce energy
through oxidation of energy sources (carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins) and is usually expressed as a volume
of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight per
minute (i.e., ml·kg-1·min-1) (65). Few strength and conditioning
professionals have the equipment to measure
oxygen consumption directly, so aerobic capacity is
generally estimated by performance in aerobic endurance
activities such as running 1 mile (1.6 km) or more (45,
79, 88). It can also be estimated using other field tests
such as the maximal aerobic speed (MAS) test (60) and
the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (9, 13, 58, 59).
Agility
Agility has traditionally been considered the ability to
stop, start, and change the direction of the whole body
rapidly (101, 108). Agility consists of two main components:
speed in changing direction and cognitive factors
(101). More recently the definition of agility has been
revised to take into account the perceptual qualities, and
it is now considered “a rapid, whole-body, change of
direction or speed in response to a sports-specific stimulus”
(101, 108). Agility testing is generally confined to
physical capacity tests such as change-of-direction speed
or cognitive components such as anticipation. Tests such
as the T-test, 505 agility, and pro agility test are used to
assess change of direction.
Speed
Speed is movement distance per unit time and is
typically quantified as the time taken to cover a fixed
distance. The time taken to sprint from a stationary start
over a short distance such as 10 yards (9.3 m) reflects
acceleration, whereas longer sprints such as 40 yards
(37.1 m) would measure maximum speed (126). Tests of
speed are not usually conducted over distances greater
than 100 m (109.4 yards) because longer distances reflect
anaerobic or aerobic capacity more than absolute ability
to move the body at maximal speed (73, 90, 126).
Electronic timing devices are becoming more accessible
to strength and conditioning professionals due
to increased ease of use and lower prices. However,
many tests of speed and agility are administered using
hand timing with a stopwatch, which can be a major
source of measurement error, especially if the tester is
not sufficiently trained. Even under ideal conditions,
stopwatch-measured sprint times are up to 0.24 seconds
faster than electronically measured times because of the
tester’s reaction-time delay in pressing the stopwatch
button at the gun and the tendency to anticipate and press
the button early as the athlete approaches the finish line
(31, 44, 91). Therefore strength and conditioning professionals
are encouraged to use electronic timing devices
for tests of speed and agility when they are available. It
is also more informative to measure split times, as this
can provide the strength and conditioning professional
with insight into the speed and acceleration capacities of
the athletes. For example, times for 10 yards (9.1 m), 20
yards (18.3 m), and 40 yards (36.6 m) can be recorded
and used to calculate split times and maximal velocity.
Finally, tests of speed and agility require proper footwear
and a nonslip surface.
Flexibility
Flexibility can be defined as the range of motion about a
body joint (11). Typical devices for measuring flexibility
include manual and electric goniometers, which measure
joint angle, and the sit-and-reach box, which is used to
evaluate the combined flexibility of the lower back and
hips. Flexibility measurements are more reliable when
standardized warm-up and static stretching precede the
flexibility assessment. During a flexibility test, the athlete
should move slowly into the fully stretched position
and hold this position. Ballistic stretching, characterized
by bouncing to increase range of motion, cannot be
allowed during any flexibility testing (45, 79).
A number of physical competency screens are available
for strength and conditioning professionals and can
be used to assess overall flexibility, mobility, and general
movement competency of athletes. However there is no
current consensus on which screen to use or a clearly
established link between results of screening and injury
(68, 84). Good strength and conditioning professionals
perform postural and performance screening routinely
by viewing the athletes’ performance in training. For
example, the overhead squat is a common exercise that is
used as a part of movement screens as it is able to assess
bilateral mobility of hips, knees, and ankles along with
shoulder and thoracic spine (3, 16, 93).
Balance and Stability
Balance is the ability to maintain static and dynamic
equilibrium or the ability to maintain the body’s center
of gravity over its base of support (73, 90). Stability is
a measure of the ability to return to a desired position
following a disturbance to the system (73). Athletes with
poor balance are at a greater risk of lower limb injuries
(52, 53). Athletes have also been shown to have greater
balance compared to nonathletes (23). Balance testing
can be used to assess stability increases with training
and in a number of different ways (73). Commonly used
tests include timed static standing tests (eyes closed and
standing on one or both legs) (14, 66), balance tests
using unstable surfaces (66), and tests using specialized
balance testing equipment (NeuroCom, Biodex Balance
System) (90). These include a large number of tests that
can evaluate different aspects of balance and stability
(73). The balance error scoring system (BESS) and star
excursion balance test (SEBT) have very good reliability
and a substantial body of literature supporting their use
(14, 41, 43, 73, 83, 111).
Body Composition
Body composition usually refers to the relative proportions
by weight of fat and lean tissue. Although there
are sophisticated and expensive devices capable of
partitioning the lean component into bone and nonbone
lean tissue, the body composition procedures typically
performed by strength and conditioning professionals
use the basic two-compartment (fat and lean) model.
With a trained and competent tester, the skinfold measurement
technique is the most valid and reliable (r =
0.99) means for assessing body fatness that is generally
available to the strength and conditioning professional
and is preferable to body circumference methods (65),
although dual x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and underwater
(hydrostatic) weighing are often labeled as the
“gold standards.” The skinfold method uses calipers that
measure the thickness of a double layer of finger-pinched
skin and subcutaneous fat. A good skinfold measurement
device should squeeze the fold of skin and fat with constant
pressure regardless of the amount of tissue being
measured (28, 45, 88). Circumference methods may be
added, as they are relatively quick and simple and can
yield important chronic disease risk information. For
example, waist circumference can assess abdominal
fat, and a high waist circumference is associated with
an increased risk for type 2 diabetes, high cholesterol,
high blood pressure, and certain types of cardiac disease
(45).
Anthropometry
Anthropometry, which is the science of measurement
applied to the human body, generally includes measurements
of height, weight, and selected body girths (45).
Ideally, height should be measured with a stadiometer.
If a stadiometer is not available, measurement of height
requires a flat wall against which the athlete stands, with
a measuring tape attached or unattached to the wall.
Height is usually measured without shoes to the nearest
quarter-inch or half-centimeter (73).
The most accurate body mass or body weight measurement
is performed with a certified balance scale,
which is generally more reliable than a spring scale and
should be calibrated on a regular basis (73). A calibrated
electronic scale is an acceptable alternative. Athletes
should be weighed while wearing minimal dry clothing
(e.g., gym shorts and T-shirt, no shoes). For comparison
measurements at a later date, they should dress similarly
and be weighed at the same time of day. The most reliable
body mass measurements are made in the morning
upon rising, after elimination and before ingestion of
food or fluids. Level of hydration can result in vari
ability of body mass (weight). Thus, athletes should be
encouraged to avoid eating salty food (which increases
water retention) the day before weighing and to go to
bed normally hydrated.
The most reliable girth measurements are usually
obtained with the aid of a flexible measuring tape
equipped with a spring-loaded attachment at the end
that, when pulled out to a specified mark, exerts a fixed
amount of tension on the tape. Girth measurements
should be made at the beginning of a training period
for comparison with subsequent measurements (45, 73).
Testing Conditions
As discussed in detail in chapter 12, in order to maximize
the reliability of tests, it is essential that testing
conditions be as similar as possible for all the athletes
tested and from test to retest of the same athlete. The
environmental conditions should not differ from test to
test. For any particular test conducted on the ground, the
surface should always be the same and should not be
wet for one test and dry for another. Maximum strength
tests should use the same type of racks with the supports
set at the same height for a given athlete. For jumping
tests, the type of equipment used should be consistent.
Athletes should never be tested after fatiguing sport
activities or workouts. They should arrive for testing
normally hydrated and with standard nutrition before
commencing the testing. Standardization of testing also
includes not taking supplements before performing the
test (e.g., creatine monohydrate can enhance performance
on some tests) (119). It is best to perform tests
and retests at approximately the same time of day (92).
Warm-up for the tests should be standardized and should
include both a general dynamic warm-up such as jogging
or light calisthenics and a specific warm-up that involves
movements like those required by the test, such as practice
of the test at submaximal intensity. Familiarization
and practice of the tests to be performed by the athletes
are also critical aspects. Stretching is appropriate for any
test requiring flexibility.

1RM Bench Press
Equipment
• A barbell, weight plates, and two safety locks;
enough total weight to accommodate the maximum
load of the strongest athlete; and a variety
of plate sizes to allow for 5-pound (2.5 kg) gradations
in weight
• A sturdy bench press bench with integral bar rack
(preferably of adjustable height)
Personnel
• One spotter, one recorder
Procedure
1. Instruct the athlete in proper technique for the
flat barbell bench press as described in chapter
15.
2. The spotter stands at the head end of the bench
throughout the test to help in raising the bar on
a failed attempt and to help the athlete place the
bar back on the rack.
3. As with any maximal strength test, the athlete
first does a specific warm-up of 5 to 10 repetitions
with a light to moderate load.
4. Usually, at least two heavier warm-up sets of two
to five repetitions each are completed before the
first actual 1RM attempt.
5. Generally, it is desirable to measure the 1RM
within three to five attempts after the warm-up;
otherwise fatigue may detract from the final
result.
6. A more detailed step-by-step method for the
1RM protocol is shown in figure 17.1.
Note: Normative and descriptive data for the 1RM
bench press are presented in tables 13.1 and 13.4
near the end of the chapter.

1RM Bench Pull
Equipment
• A barbell, weight plates, and two safety locks;
enough total weight to accommodate the maximum
load of the strongest athlete; and a variety
of plate sizes to allow for 5-pound (2.5 kg) gradations
in weight
• A sturdy bench
Personnel
• One spotter, one recorder
Procedure
1. Instruct the athlete in proper technique for the
bench pull (figure 13.1).
2. The athlete grasps the bar with a closed pronated
grip, wider than shoulder-width.
3. Bench height is set so the athlete can use a comfortable
grip while the weight is off the ground
in the hang position.
4. The athlete starts the lift from the hang position,
and the grip should be consistent from test to
test.
5. The bar is pulled up toward the lower chest or
upper abdomen with the elbows pointed up.
6. The head position can remain either down or
to the side but must remain in contact with the
bench throughout the test.
7. A valid repetition is one in which the bar touches
the underside of the bench and the bar is lowered
in a controlled manner to the hang position
with full elbow extension without touching the
ground.
8. The feet should remain off the ground throughout
the test and in the same position throughout.
9. A more detailed step-by-step method for the
1RM protocol is shown in figure 17.1.
Note: Descriptive data for the 1RM bench pull are
presented in table 13.4 near the end of the chapter.

13.3 1RM Back Squat
13.2 (continued)
Figure 13.1 (a) Starting position and (b) top position of the bench pull.
a b
Equipment
• A barbell, weight plates, and two safety locks;
enough total weight to accommodate the maximum
load of the strongest athlete; and a variety
of plate sizes to allow for 5-pound (2.5 kg) gradations
in weight
• A sturdy squat rack with adjustable spotting bars
to support the weight of the bar if the athlete is
unable to rise (as an alternative, one spotter can
be used at each end of the bar)
• A flat and solid surface to stand on
Personnel
• Two spotters, one recorder
Procedure
1. Instruct the athlete in proper technique for the
back squat as described in chapter 15.
2. Warm-up sets are performed as for the 1RM
bench press test. However, the loads lifted are
typically heavier than in the 1RM bench press
test, so the load increments will be greater than
those of the 1RM bench press.
3. Refer to figure 17.1 for a 1RM testing protocol.
Note: Normative and descriptive data for the 1RM
back squat are presented in tables

Maximum Muscular Power (High-Speed Strength)
13.4 1RM Power Clean
13.5 Sta nding Long Jump
Note: Because the power clean exercise has high
technical demands, two athletes with the same muscular
power capacity can differ greatly in their tested
1RM, lessening the value of the test for predicting
athletic performance.
Equipment
• An Olympic-style barbell with a revolving sleeve,
weight plates, and two safety locks; enough total
weight to accommodate the maximum load of
the strongest athlete; and a variety of plate sizes
to allow for 5-pound (2.5 kg) gradations in weight
• A lifting platform or designated area set apart
from the rest of the facility for safety
Personnel
• One tester/recorder
Procedure
1. Instruct the athlete in proper technique for the
power clean as described in chapter 15.
2. Warm-up sets are performed and load increments
are selected as for the 1RM bench press
test.
3. Refer to figure 17.1 for a 1RM testing protocol.
Note: Normative and descriptive data for the 1RM
power clean are presented in tables 13.1 through 13.4
near the end of the chapter.
Equipment
• A flat jumping area at least 20 feet (6 m) in length,
which can be a gym floor, artificial turf, grass
field, or a track
• A tape measure at least 10 feet (3 m) long
• Duct tape or masking tape
• Permissible alternative: a commercial jumping
mat premarked in half-inch (1 cm) increments
Personnel
• One distance judge, one recorder
Procedure
1. Place a 2- to 3-foot (0.6–0.9 m) length of tape on
the floor to serve as a starting line.
2. The athlete stands with the toes just behind the
starting line.
3. The athlete performs a countermovement and
jumps forward as far as possible.
4. The athlete must land on the feet for the jump
to be scored. Otherwise the trial is repeated.
5. A marker is placed at the back edge of the
athlete’s rearmost heel, and the tape measure
determines the distance between the starting
line and the mark.
6. The best of three trials is recorded to the nearest
0.5 inches or 1 cm.
Note: Normative and descriptive data for the standing
long jump are presented in tables 13.5 to 13.7 near
the end of the chapter.

Maximum Muscular Power (High-Speed Strength)
Equipment
• A smooth wall with a ceiling higher than the
highest jumper’s jump height
• A flat floor with good traction
• Chalk of a different color than the wall
• Measuring tape or stick
• Permissible alternative: a commercial device for
vertical jump testing (e.g., Vertec)
Personnel
• One tester/recorder
Procedure (Using a Wall and Chalk)
1. The tester rubs chalk on the fingertips of the
athlete’s dominant hand.
2. The athlete stands with the dominant shoulder
about 6 inches (15 cm) from the wall and, with
both feet flat on the floor, reaches as high as
possible with the dominant hand and makes a
chalk mark on the wall.
3. The athlete then lowers the dominant hand and,
without a preparatory or stutter step, performs
a countermovement by quickly flexing the
knees and hips, moving the trunk forward and
downward, and swinging the arms backward
(figure 13.2a). During the jump, the dominant
arm reaches upward while the nondominant arm
moves downward relative to the body.
4. At the highest point in the jump, the athlete
places a second chalk mark on the wall with the
fingers of the dominant hand, using a swiping
motion of the fingers. The score is the vertical
distance between the two chalk marks.
5. The best of three trials is recorded to the nearest
0.5 inches or 1.0 cm.
Procedure (Using a Commercial Vertec Device)
1. The tester adjusts the height of the stack of
movable color-coded horizontal plastic vanes to
be within the athlete’s standing reach height. The
highest vane that can be reached and pushed
forward with the dominant hand while the athlete
stands flat-footed determines the standing
touch height.
2. The vane stack is then raised by a measured distance
(marked on the shaft holding the vanes) so
that the athlete will not jump higher or lower than
the set of vanes. This requires a rough estimate
of how high the particular athlete will jump, but
a correction can be made on the second attempt
if necessary.
3. Without a preparatory or stutter step, the athlete
performs a countermovement by quickly flexing
the knees and hips, moving the trunk forward
and downward, and swinging the arms backward
(figure 13.2a). During the jump, the dominant
arm reaches upward while the nondominant arm
moves downward relative to the body.
4. At the highest point in the jump, the athlete taps
the highest possible vane with the fingers of
the dominant hand (figure 13.2b). The score is
the vertical distance between the height of the
highest vane tapped during the standing vertical
reach and the vane tapped at the highest point
of the jump.
5. The best of three trials is recorded to the nearest
0.5 inches or 1 cm (the distance between
adjacent vanes).
Note: Descriptive data for the vertical jump are presented
in table 13.7 near the end of the chapter.

Maximum Muscular Power (High-Speed Strength)
FIGURE 13.3 (a) Starting position and (b) maximum height of the static vertical jump.
a b
Procedure (Using a Contact Mat System)
1. The test procedures are essentially the same as
for the vertical jump, except that the countermovement
is removed. Begin with the athlete
standing on the mat (or force plate). (Note: The
vertical jump with countermovement can also be
tested using a contact mat system.)
2. The athlete descends into a squat position (knee
angle approximately 110°) and holds this position
for 2 to 3 seconds before jumping vertically
(figure 13.3).
3. From the measuring device, obtain the jump
height.
4. The takeoff and landing positions, as well as
jumping strategy, should be the same for each
trial.
5. The best of three trials is recorded. The ratio of
the vertical jump height with countermovement
to squat jump height can be calculated as the
eccentric utilization ratio (69).
Note: Descriptive data for the static vertical jump are
presented in table 13.7 near the end of the chapter.

Maximum Muscular Power (High-Speed Strength)
13.8 Reactive Strength Index
Figure 13.4 (a) Starting position, (b) contact on mat, and © maximum height of the drop jump test to measure reactive
strength index.
a b c
Equipment
• Boxes of varying heights — for example, 20 cm
(7.9 inches), 30 cm (11.8 inches), and 40 cm (15.7
inches)
• A commercial device able to measure contact
time — for example, a jump or contact mat (contact
mat systems calculate jump height using
flight time (37, 62, 122)
Personnel
• One tester/recorder
Procedure
1. Begin with the athlete standing on top of the
drop box with the contact mat placed at least
0.2 m in front of the box.
2. Instruct the athlete to place hands on hips,
to step forward off the box without stepping
down or jumping up, and, upon contact with
the ground, to jump as high as possible while
minimizing contact time as much as possible
(figure 13.4).
3. The takeoff and landing positions, as well as
jumping strategy, should be the same for each
trial.
4. From the measuring device, obtain the jump
height and contact times.
5. The best of three trials is recorded.
6. Calculate the reactive strength index as jump
height divided by contact time.
7. The procedure can be repeated from boxes of
varying heights to obtain a stretch tolerance
profile for the athlete.

Maximum Muscular Power (High-Speed Strength)
Figure 13.5 Margaria-Kalamen stair sprint test.
From E. Fox, R. Bowers, and M. Foss, 1993, The physiological basis for exercise and sport, 5th ed. (Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown), 675. Reprinted with
permission of McGraw-Hill companies.
E6372NSCA/Baechle/Fig.13.5/508159/JB/r2-alw
6 m
3rd step
6th step
Switch mat
9th step
Switch mat
Clock (to nearest 0.01 second)
Vertical
distance (h)
(e.g., 1.05 m)
Equipment
• Staircase with nine or more steps, each approximately
7 inches (18 cm) high, and a straight and
flat lead-up area 20 feet (6 m) or more in length
(figure 13.5)
• Measuring tape or stick
• An electronic timing system with both a start
and a stop switch mechanism
• Scale
Personnel
• One tester/recorder
Procedure
1. The height of each step is measured with a
ruler or tape measure, and the elevation from
the third step to the ninth step is calculated (6
? step height).
2. The timer start switch mechanism is placed on
the third step, and the stop switch mechanism
is placed on the ninth step.
3. The athlete to be tested is weighed on a scale,
warms up, and practices running up the stairs
three steps at a time.
4. When ready, the athlete sprints toward the stairs
from a standing start 20 feet (6 m) from the base
of the stairs and then up the staircase three steps
at a time (third step to sixth step to ninth step)
as fast as possible.
5. The time from third- to ninth-step contact is
determined to the nearest 0.01 seconds using
the timing system.
6. Power in watts is calculated as the athlete’s
weight (w) in newtons (pounds ? 4.45 or kg
? 9.807) times height (h) in meters (inches ?
0.0254) from the third step to the ninth step
divided by the measured time interval (t) in seconds;
P (watts) = (w ? h) / t.
7. Repeat the test two more times with a 2- to
3-minute recovery period between each trial.
Note: Normative data for the Margaria-Kalamen test
are presented in table 13.8 near the end of the chapter.

Anaerobic Capacity
13.10 300-Ya rd (274 m) Shuttle
Figure 13.6 Ground layout for the 300-yard (274 m) shuttle.
Adapted, by permission, from Gilliam, 1983 (38).
Line judge
(5-minute rest)
Start
25 yards
6 round trips
Line judge
Line judge Line judge
First trial Second trial
Start
25 yards
6 round trips
E6372/NSCA/fig13.06/508160/alw/r1-pulled
Equipment
• A stopwatch with at least 0.1-second resolution
• Two parallel lines 25 yards (22.86 m) apart on a
flat surface (figure 13.6)
Personnel
• One timer, two line judges
Procedure
1. Pair off athletes of similar ability.
2. Position two athletes immediately behind one
line, facing the other line.
3. On an auditory signal, the athletes sprint to the
line 25 yards (22.86 m) away, making foot contact
with it, then immediately sprint back to the first
line. Six such round trips are made as fast as
possible without stopping (6 ? 50 yards = 300
yards, or 274 m).
4. On completion of the first trial, record both
athletes’ times to the nearest 0.1 seconds and
start a clock to time a 5-minute rest interval. As
each pair of athletes completes the first trial, they
may walk and stretch but must stay alert for the
starting time on the second trial.
5. After the rest period, the pair of athletes does
another trial.
6. The average of two trials is recorded to the
nearest 0.1 second.
Note: Descriptive data for the 300-yard (274 m) shuttle
are presented in table 13.9 near the end of the
chapter.

Local Muscular Endurance
13.11 Partial Curl-Up
Figure 13.7 Curl-up: (a) beginning position and (b) end position.
a
b
The partial curl-up test measures the muscular endurance
of the abdominal muscles. It is favored over the
sit-up test because it eliminates the use of the hip
flexor muscles.
Equipment
• Metronome
• Ruler
• Masking tape
• Mat
Personnel
• One recorder/technique judge
Procedure
1. The athlete assumes a supine position on a mat
with a 90° knee angle (figure 13.7a). The arms are
at the sides, resting on the floor, with the fingers
touching a 4-inch-long (10 cm) piece of masking
tape positioned perpendicular to the fingers. A
second piece of masking tape is situated parallel
to the first tape at a distance determined by the
age of the athlete (4.7 inches [12 cm] for those
younger than 45 and 3.1 inches [8 cm] for those
45 or older).
2. Set a metronome to 40 beats per minute and
have the individual do slow, controlled curl-ups to
lift the shoulder blades off the mat (trunk makes
a 30° angle with the mat; figure 13.7b) in time
with the metronome (20 curl-ups per minute).
The upper back must touch the floor before each
curl-up. The athlete should avoid flexing the neck
to bring the chin close to the chest.
3. The athlete performs as many curl-ups as possible
without pausing, to a maximum of 75.
Note: Normative data for the partial curl-up are presented
in table 13.10 near the end of the chapter.

Local Muscular Endurance
Figure 13.8 Push-up according to Army standard: (a) beginning position and (b) end position.
Figure 13.9 Push-up according to ACSM standard for females: (a) beginning position and (b) end position.
a b
a b
Equipment
• A 4-inch (10 cm)-diameter foam roller (for female
athletes)
Personnel
• One recorder/technique judge
Procedure
1. For both the Army and American College of
Sports Medicine (ACSM) standards, men
assume the standard push-up starting position
with hands shoulder-width apart and elbows
and body straight (figure 13.8a). For the Army
standards, women assume the same position as
the men. For the ACSM standards, women start
similarly except that the knees rather than the
feet contact the ground, with the knees flexed at
90° and the ankles crossed (figure 13.9a).
2. For the Army standards, the push-up low position
is when the upper arms are parallel to the
ground (figure 13.8b). For the ACSM standards,
the low position for males is when the chest
makes contact with the recorder’s fist held vertically
against the ground. There is no standard
criterion for the female low position (30), but it
has been suggested that females make torso
contact with a foam roller on the ground rather
than a fist (figure 13.9b). For either standard,
repetitions that do not achieve the required low
position are not counted.
3. For the Army standard, as many repetitions as
possible are done within a timed 2-minute period.
The athlete may pause only in the up position.
For the ACSM standard, as many repetitions as
possible are done continuously until failure.
Note: ACSM normative data for the push-up are
presented in table 13.11 near the end of the chapter.
Army push-up point scores are shown in table 13.12.

Local Muscular Endurance
Equipment
• A barbell, weight plates, two safety locks, and
enough total weight to assemble an 80-pound
(36 kg) or a 35-pound (16 kg) load (including
safety locks)
• Flat bench press bench (preferably with an
upright rack to hold the barbell)
• Metronome
Personnel
• One spotter/recorder
Procedure
1. Instruct the athlete in proper technique for the
flat barbell bench press as described in chapter
15.
2. The spotter/recorder stands at the head end of
the bench throughout the test to help in raising
the bar on a failed attempt and to help the athlete
place the bar back on the rack.
3. Set the resistance at 80 pounds (36 kg) for males
and 35 pounds (16 kg) for females.
4. Set the metronome cadence at 60 beats per
minute to establish a rate of 30 repetitions per
minute (one beat up, one beat down).
5. The athlete grips the bar at shoulder-width, lifts
the bar off the rack, and extends the elbows.
Then, in time with the metronome, the bar is
repeatedly lowered to the chest and raised up
again, so that the elbows are extended, until
the athlete can no longer keep up with the
metronome. The movement should be smooth
and controlled, with the bar reaching its highest
and lowest position with each beat of the metronome.
Note: Normative data for the YMCA bench press
test are presented in table 13.13 near the end of the
chapter.

Aerobic Capacity
13.14 1.5-Mile (2.4 km) Run
13.15 12-Minute Run
Equipment
• Stopwatch
• Quarter-mile running track or measured and
marked 1.5-mile (2.4 km) flat course with a good
running surface. A 1.86-mile (3 km) course can
also be used as an alternative.
Personnel
• One tester to call off each athlete’s time, one
recorder
Procedure
1. Have each athlete warm up and stretch before
the test.
2. Each athlete should be recognizable to the scorer
at the finish line. If that is not possible, numbers
should be pinned to the athletes’ shirts.
3. At the start, all runners should line up behind
the starting line.
4. Instruct the athletes to complete the run as
quickly as possible at a steady pace that they can
barely maintain over the distance. (Note: Some
athletes may have limited experience at pacing
long efforts such as this, so some familiarization
and prior pacing efforts in training are suggested.)
5. On an auditory signal, the athletes start running
and cover the course as quickly as possible.
6. As the runners cross the finish line, each runner’s
time is recorded on a form as a timer calls off the
time in minutes and seconds (00:00).
Note: Normative data for the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run are
presented in tables 13.14 through 13.17 near the end
of the chapter. For each 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run time,
the tables show an estimated maximal rate of oxygen
consumption; the norms for athletes in various sports
are shown in table 13.18 near the end of the chapter.
Equipment
• A 400 m (437-yard) track or flat looped course
with a marker at each 100 m
• Stopwatch
Personnel
• One tester to call out each athlete’s position,
one recorder
Procedure
1. Athletes line up at the starting line.
2. On an auditory signal, the athletes travel by foot
as far as possible in 12 minutes, preferably by
running, but if necessary by walking part or all
of the time.
3. At 12 minutes, on an auditory signal, all the athletes
stop in place.
4. The distance run by each athlete (laps ? 400 m —
e.g., 5.25 laps ? 400 m = 2,100 m) is calculated
and recorded.
Note: Normative data for the 12-minute run are presented
in table 13.19 near the end of the chapter

Aerobic Capacity
Figure 13.10 Setup for the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery
test.
E6372/Baechle/fig 13.10/508748/JanT/R2-alw
Turning line
Run
Start line
Jog for
recovery
20 m
5 m
The use of the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery tests
(IRT1 and IRT2) is now commonplace in field testing
protocols for team sports (9, 13, 58). It is suggested
that these tests are more specific to team sports as
they mimic the demands of short intensive bursts of
exercise followed by short recovery periods. Both of
the tests consist of 2 ? 20 m shuttle runs at increasing
speeds interspersed with a 10-second period of
recovery, with the IRT1 starting at 10 km/h and the
IRT2 starting at 13 km/h. It is recommended that
strength and conditioning professionals use the IRT1.
Equipment
• Cones
• A tape measure at least 30 m long
• Audio software specifically for the Yo-Yo intermittent
recovery test, IRT1 (available from a variety
of commercial sources)
• Method of broadcasting the audio files (e.g.,
wireless speakers)
• Recording sheet
• Flat floor with good traction
Personnel
• One tester/recorder, one spotter
Procedure
1. Measure out a 20 m test course and arrange
cones as seen in figure 13.10. Place markers 2
m apart at both ends of the test course at the
start and turning lines. Also measure out a 5 m
distance behind the start line.
2. Have the athletes warm up and stretch before
the test. The athletes should run the course with
a submaximal effort for practice.
3. The test begins with the athletes standing at
the start line.
4. On an auditory signal, the athletes run forward
to the turning line. At the sound of the second
signal, athletes arrive at the turning line and then
run back to the starting line, arriving in time with
the next sound.
5. When the start marker is passed, the athletes
jog toward the 5 m mark, then turn back to the
start line. At this point the athletes stop and wait
for the next sound.
6. The athletes are required to place one foot on
or over the starting or turning line at the sound
of each beep.
7. The athletes continue running for as long as they
can maintain the increasing speed as indicated
by the auditory signals.
8. The termination of the test is indicated by the
inability of an athlete to maintain the required
pace for two trials. A warning is given the first
time the start or turning line is not reached.
9. At the end of the test, record the last level and
number of 2 ? 20 m intervals performed at that
level on a recording sheet.
10. The final Yo-Yo intermittent recovery speed and
interval score can be used to calculate the total
distance covered by the athlete during the test.
Note: Descriptive data for the Yo-Yo intermittent
recovery test are presented in table 13.20 near the
end of the chapter.

Aerobic Capacity
Equipment
• Cones
• A tape measure at least 30 m long
• Audio software specifically for the MAS test
• Method of broadcasting the audio files (e.g.,
wireless speakers)
• Recording sheet
• Indoor or outdoor running track (at least 200 m)
Personnel
• One tester/recorder
Procedure
1. Marker cones are placed at 25 m intervals around
the running track.
2. The initial speed of the test is set between 8
and 12 km/h depending on the fitness level of
the athlete. It is generally recommended that
athletes start at 10km/h.
3. The speed is then increased by 1 km/h every 2
minutes until the athlete cannot maintain the
speed.
4. The last speed maintained for at least 2 minutes
is considered the speed associated with V
.
O2max
or MAS.
5. The test is terminated if the athlete fails to reach
the next cone on two consecutive occasions in
the required time.
6. The speed at the last completed stage is
increased by 0.5 km/h if the athlete is able to
run a half stage.
7. The V
.
O2max of the athlete can be calculated by
multiplying 3.5 ? MAS (speed in kilometers per
hour) (60).
8. If the coach does not have access to the audio
version, it is possible to conduct the test using
a whistle. Calculate the timing of whistles using
a set speed for reaching the next cone. For
example, when the distance between cones is
25 m, the timing of whistles for 10 km/h would
be every 9 seconds.
Note: Norms for the V
.
O2max of athletes in various
sports are shown in table 13.18 near the end of the
chapter.

Agility
13.18 T-Test
Figure 13.11 Floor layout for the T-test.
Adapted, by permission, from Semenick, 1990 (100).
C B D
A
5 yards 5 yards
10 yards
E6372/NSCA/fig13.11/508167/alw/r1-pulled
Equipment
• Four cones
• A tape measure at least 5 yards (4.6 m) long
• Stopwatch
• Flat floor with good traction
Personnel
• One tester/recorder, one spotter
Procedure
1. Arrange four cones as shown in figure 13.11
(points A, B, C, and D).
2. Have the athlete warm up and stretch before
the test. The athlete may run the course with a
submaximal effort for practice.
3. The test begins with the athlete standing at
point A.
4. On an auditory signal, the athlete sprints forward
to point B and touches the base of the cone with
the right hand.
5. Then, while facing forward and not crossing the
feet, the athlete shuffles to the left 5 yards (4.6
m) and touches the base of the cone at point C
with the left hand.
6. The athlete then shuffles to the right 10 yards
(9.1 m) and touches the base of the cone at point
D with the right hand.
7. The athlete then shuffles to the left 5 yards and
touches the base of the cone at point B with the
left hand, and next runs backward past point A,
at which time the watch is stopped.
8. For safety, a spotter and gym mat should be
positioned several feet behind point A to catch
an athlete who falls while running backward.
9. The best time of two trials is recorded to the
nearest 0.1 seconds.
10. Reasons for disqualification of a trial: The athlete
fails to touch the base of any cone, crosses one
foot in front of the other instead of shuffling the
feet, or fails to face forward for the entire test.
Note: Descriptive data for the T-test are presented in
table 13.21 near the end of the chapter.

Agility
Figure 13.12 Layout for the hexagon test.
Adapted, by permission, from Pauole, et al., 2000 (86).
24 inches (61 cm)
120°
E6372/NSCA/fig13.12/508168/alw/r1-pulled
Equipment
• Adhesive tape of a color that contrasts with the
floor
• Measuring tape or stick
• Stopwatch
• Flat floor with good traction
Personnel
• One timer/recorder, one line judge
Procedure
1. Using the adhesive tape, create a hexagon on
the floor with 24-inch (61 cm) sides meeting to
form 120° angles (figure 13.12).
2. The athlete warms up and practices performance
of the test at submaximal speed.
3. The test begins with the athlete standing in the
middle of the hexagon.
4. On an auditory signal, the athlete begins double-
leg hopping from the center of the hexagon
over each side and back to the center, starting
with the side directly in front of the athlete, in
a continuous clockwise sequence until all six
sides are covered three times (three revolutions
around the hexagon for a total of 18 jumps)
and the athlete is again standing at the center.
The athlete remains facing the same direction
throughout the test.
5. If the athlete lands on a side of the hexagon
rather than over it, or loses balance and takes an
extra step or changes the direction in which he
or she is facing, the trial is stopped and restarted
after the athlete is allowed time for full recovery.
6. The best time of three trials is recorded to the
nearest 0.1 seconds.
Note: Descriptive data for the hexagon test are presented
in table 13.21 near the end of the chapter.

Agility
Figure 13.13 Layout for the pro agility test.
Starting position
1
2
3
10 yards
5 yards
E6372/NSCA/fig13.13/508169/alw/r2-pulled
13.21 505 Agility Test
Figure 13.14 Layout for the 505 agility test.
This test is also called the 20-yard (18.3 m) shuttle.
Equipment
• An American football field or other field marked
with three parallel lines 5 yards (4.6 m) apart
(figure 13.13)
• A stopwatch
Personnel
• One timer/recorder, one line judge
Procedure
1. The athlete straddles the centermost of the three
parallel lines using a three-point stance.
2. On an auditory signal, the athlete sprints 5 yards
(4.6 m) to the line on the left, then changes direction
and sprints 10 yards (9.1 m) to the line on the
right, then again changes direction and sprints
5 yards (4.6 m) to the center line. Hand (or foot)
contact must be made with all indicated lines.
(Note: It is important that this is kept consistent
for both trials.)
3. The best time of two trials is recorded to the
nearest 0.01 seconds.
Note: Normative data for the pro agility test are presented
in table 13.22 near the end of the chapter.
Equipment
• 7 cones
• A stopwatch or timing lights
Personnel
• One timer/recorder, one line judge
Procedure
1. Arrange the cones as seen in figure 13.14. If
timing lights are available, these can also be set
up as shown.
2. Have the athlete warm up and stretch before
the test. The athlete may run the course with a
submaximal effort for practice.
3. The test begins with the athlete standing at the
start line.
4. On an auditory signal, the athlete sprints forward
10 m to the first set of timing lights, then sprints
a further 5 m to the turning line (one foot must be
on or over the line), where he or she is required
to turn and accelerate off the line.
5. The athlete may slow down only after passing
through the timing lights for the second time.
6. The best time of two trials is recorded to the
nearest 0.1 second.
7. The athlete completes the trials turning off the
preferred leg. Alternatively, trials (at least two)
can be given turning off either leg.
Note: Descriptive data for the 505 agility test are
presented in table 13.21 near the end of the chapter.
E6372/Baechle/fig 13.14/508749/JanT/R2-alw
Start line
Turning line
Finish line
10 m
5 m
283
Speed
13.22 Straight-Line Sprint Tests
Equipment
• Stopwatch or timing lights
• Flat running surface with start and finish lines a
specified distance apart (e.g., 40 yards or 37 m;
10 m, 20 m, 40 m), with at least 20 yards (18 m)
after the finish line for deceleration
Personnel
• One timer/recorder
Procedure
1. Have the athlete warm up and dynamically
stretch for several minutes.
2. Allow at least two practice runs at submaximal
speed.
3. The athlete assumes a starting position using a
three- or four-point stance.
4. On an auditory signal, the athlete sprints the
specified distance at maximal speed.
5. The best split times of two trials are recorded to
the nearest 0.1 second.
6. Allow at least 2 minutes of active recovery or
rest between trials.
Note: Normative data for the 10 m, 20 m, 40 m, and
40-yard (37 m) sprint are presented in table 13.23 near
the end of the chapter.

Balance and Stability
13.23 Balance Error Scoring System (BESS)
Figure 13.15 Balance error scoring system (BESS): (a-c) firm surface condition and (d-f) soft surface condition.
a b c
d e f
Equipment
• Foam balance pad
• Stopwatch
Personnel
• One timer/recorder
Procedure
1. The six positions of the BESS are shown in
figure 13.15.
2. The three stance positions are double-leg stance
with feet together, single-leg stance on the nondominant
foot with contralateral leg in approximately
90° of flexion, and tandem stance with
the dominant foot in front of the nondominant
foot (95). The test is conducted on a firm surface
and on a soft surface.
3. The stances are held for 20 seconds with eyes
closed for each condition and hands on hips.
4. Athletes are told to keep as steady as possible,
and if they lose balance, they attempt to regain
their initial position as quickly as possible.
5. Errors include opening eyes; lifting hands from
hips; touchdown of nonstance foot; step, hop, or
other movement of the stance foot or feet; lifting
forefeet or heel; moving hip into more than 30°
of hip flexion or abduction; or remaining out of
position for more than 5 seconds.
6. The error scores from the BESS test are summed
into a single score.
Note: Normative data for the BESS are presented in
table 13.24 near the end of the chapter.

Balance and Stability
Figure 13.16 Directions for the star excursion balance test (SEBT).
Reprinted, by permission, from Reiman and Mankse, 2009 (93).
E6372/Baechle/fig 13.16/508756/JanT/R1
Anterolateral
Anterior
Anteromedial
Lateral
Posterolateral
Posterior
Reach with
right leg
Reach with
left leg
Posteromedial
Medial
Anterolateral
Anterior
Anteromedial
Lateral
Posterolateral
Posterior
Posteromedial
Medial
Equipment
• Adhesive tape
Personnel
• One recorder
Procedure
1. The athlete stands in the center of a grid with
eight lines (120 cm) extending out at 45° increments
as shown in figure 13.16 (83, 93).
2. The athlete maintains a single-leg stance facing
in one direction while reaching with the contralateral
leg as far as possible for each taped line,
touching the farthest point possible and then
returning to the bilateral position. Within a single
trial, the athlete remains facing in the beginning
direction and the stance leg remains the same,
with the other leg doing all of the reaching.
3. The distance from the center of the star to the
touch position is measured.
4. The starting direction and support leg are chosen
randomly. Three trials are performed for each
condition and averaged.
5. A 15-second rest is allowed between each of
the reaches.
6. Trials are discarded if the athlete does not touch
the line, lifts stance foot from the center grid,
loses balance, or does not maintain start and
return positions for 1 full second.
7. Athletes should be given a minimum of four
practice trials before being tested (73).
8. It has been suggested that testing the anteromedial,
medial, and posteromedial positions is
sufficient for most situations (43).

Flexibility
13.25 Sit-and-Reach Test
Figure 13.17 Sit-and-reach test: (a) starting position and (b) final position.
a b
Note: A consistent method for the sit-and-reach test
should be maintained if the test is done periodically.
For example, if the test is performed with a measuring
tape or stick during initial testing of the athlete, all subsequent
testing of the athlete should be performed
with a measuring tape or stick (i.e., a sit-and-reach
box should not be used instead).
Equipment
• Measuring tape or stick
• Adhesive tape
• Permissible alternative: a standard sit-and-reach
box
Personnel
• One tester/recorder
Procedure
1. Tape the measuring stick or tape measure to the
floor. Place one piece of tape about 24 inches
(61 cm) long across the measuring stick and at
a right angle to it at the 15-inch (38 cm) mark.
2. Have the athlete warm up with nonballistic
exercises involving the hamstrings and lower
back (for example, by walking rapidly for 3 to
5 minutes); performing several repetitions of
flexing forward from a standing, knees-straight
position, reaching toward the toes, then reaching
upward toward the ceiling (all without jerking);
jogging in place while trying to kick the heels into
the upper thighs from behind; and finishing with
standing toe-touching or similar stretching on the
floor.
3. Have the athlete sit shoeless with the measuring
stick between the legs with its zero end toward
the body, the feet 12 inches (30 cm) apart, the
toes pointed upward, and the heels nearly touching
the edge of the taped line at the 15-inch (38
cm) mark (figure 13.17a).
4. Have the athlete slowly reach forward with both
hands as far as possible on the measuring stick,
holding this position momentarily. To get the
best stretch, the athlete should exhale and drop
the head between the arms when reaching. Be
sure the athlete keeps the hands adjacent to
each other and does not lead with one hand.
The fingertips should remain in contact with the
measuring stick (figure 13.17b). The tester may
hold the athlete’s knees down, if necessary,
to keep them straight. A score of less than 15
inches (38 cm) indicates that the athlete could
not reach the bottom of the feet.
5. The best of three trials is recorded to the nearest
0.25 inches or 1 cm.
Note: Normative data for the sit-and-reach test are
presented in tables 13.14 through 13.17 near the end
of the chapter.

Flexibility
Figure 13.18 Body position for overhead squat: (a) starting position and (b) squat position.
a b
Equipment
• Wooden dowel or barbell
Personnel
• One tester/recorder
Procedure
1. The athlete holds the wooden dowel overhead
with the shoulders fully flexed and with elbows
locked. The grip should be twice shoulder-width
and the feet approximately shoulder-width apart
and toes pointing forward or slightly out (figure
13.18).
2. The athlete then squats down; the initial action is
flexion of the hips and knees. The heels remain
in contact with the floor at all times.
3. The lowering continues until the crease of the
hips is below the top of the knee.
4. The athlete should be able to hold this position
with the torso remaining upright (parallel to the
tibia) and the wooden dowel (or barbell) comfortably
overhead.
5. The athlete performs a minimum of five repetitions,
and the assessor views the movement
from the side.
6. The assessment is qualitative and the goal is
to assess the physical competency, with the
movement scored as pass/fail.
7. It is important that the athlete be warmed up
and familiarized with the movement patterns to
increase the test validity.

Body Composition
13.27 Skinfold Measurements
Equipment
• Skinfold calipers
• Flexible tape measure
• Marking pen
Personnel
• One tester, one recorder
Procedure (Obtaining a Skinfold Measurement)
1. Skinfold measurements should be made on
dry skin, before exercise, to ensure maximum
validity and reliability (10). The number of sites
and equations should be selected based on the
population tested (see table 13.25 near the end
of the chapter).
2. Grasp the skin firmly with the thumb and index
finger to form a fold of skin and subcutaneous fat.
3. Place the caliper prongs perpendicular to the fold
0.5 inch to 1 inch (approximately 1 to 2 cm) from
the thumb and index finger.
4. Release the caliper grip so that its spring tension
is exerted on the skinfold.
5. Between 1 and 2 seconds after the grip on the
caliper has been released, read the dial on the
caliper to the nearest 0.5 mm.
6. Obtain one measurement from each test site,
and then repeat all test sites for a second trial.
If the measurements do not differ by more than
10%, average the two measurements to the
nearest 0.5 mm. Otherwise, take one or more
additional measurements until two of the measurements
are within 10%, and average those
two measurements to the nearest 0.5 mm.
Procedure (Measuring the Selected Site and Calculating
the Body Fat Percentage)
1. There are specific equations for estimating body
density (Db) (then, in turn, percent body fat
[%BF]) for different populations. First, select the
equation appropriate for the athlete from table
13.25 near the end of the chapter.
2. Refer to the chosen equation and related instructions
and mark the skin at the appropriate anatomical
sites (45, 88):
• Chest — a diagonal fold one-half the distance
between the anterior axillary line and the nipple
for men (figure 13.19a)
• Thigh — a vertical fold on the anterior aspect
of the thigh, midway between the hip and
knee joints (figure 13.19b)
• Abdomen — a vertical fold 1 inch (2.5 cm) to
the right (relative to the athlete) of the umbilicus
(figure 13.19c)
• Triceps — a vertical fold on the posterior midline
of the upper arm (over the triceps muscle),
halfway between the acromion and the
olecranon processes (the arm should be in
anatomical position with the elbow extended
and relaxed [figure 13.19d])
• Suprailium — a diagonal fold above the crest
of the ilium at the spot where an imaginary
line would come down from the anterior axillary
line (figure 13.19e) (some prefer the
measure to be taken more laterally, at the
midaxillary line)
• Midaxilla — a vertical fold on the midaxillary
line at the level of the xiphoid process of the
sternum (figure 13.19f)
• Subscapula — a fold taken on a diagonal line
that extends from the vertebral border to a
point 0.5 inch to 1 inch (1 to 2 cm) from the
inferior angle of the scapula (figure 13.19g)
• Calf — a vertical fold along the medial side of
the calf, at the level of maximum calf circumference
(figure 13.19h)
3. Using the appropriate population-specific equation
from table 13.25, calculate the estimated
body density from the skinfolds (45).
4. Enter the body density into the appropriate population-
specific equation from table 13.26 near
the end of the chapter to calculate the percent
body fat from the body density (45).
5. Note that there are no universally accepted
norms for body composition. When strength
and conditioning professionals assess an athlete’s
body composition, they must account
for a standard error of the estimate (SEE) and
report a range of percentages that the athlete
falls into. Note that the minimum SEE for population-
specific skinfold equations is ±3% to ±5%.
Therefore, if a 25-year-old male athlete’s body
fat is measured at 24%, there is a minimum of
a 6% range (21–27%).
Note: Descriptive data for percent body fat are presented
in tables 13.14 through 13.17 and table 13.27
near the end of the chapter.

Anthropometry
13.28 Gi rth Measurements
Equipment
• Flexible, spring-loaded tape measure (e.g., a
Gulick tape)
Personnel
• One tester, one recorder
Procedure
1. Position the athlete in a relaxed anatomical position
for each measurement (unless otherwise
indicated for a particular measurement).
2. Measure the following sites (56); see figure
13.20:
• Chest — at nipple level in males and at maximum
circumference (above the breasts) in
females
• Right upper arm — at the point of maximal circumference
with the elbow fully extended,
palm up, and arm abducted to parallel with
the floor
• Right forearm — at the point of maximal circumference
with the elbow fully extended,
palm up, and arm abducted to parallel with
the floor
• Waist (abdomen) — at the level of the umbilicus
• Hips (buttocks) — at the maximal protrusion
of the buttocks with the heels together
• Right thigh — at the point of maximal circumference,
usually just below the buttocks
• Right calf — at the point of maximal circumference
between the knee and ankle

Statistical Evaluation of Test Data
Once the proper test or tests have been chosen and
administered and the scores collected, the next step
may include any or all of the following: (1) analysis of
the data to determine the change in performance of the
individuals or group over the training period (weeks,
months, or years); (2) analysis of the individual or
group’s performance relative to that of similar individuals
or groups tested in the past; (3) analysis of the
relationship of each athlete’s scores to those of the group;
and (4) comparison of individual scores to local, state,
national, or international norms.
An important outcome of repeated performance testing
is evaluation of both the improvement of individual
athletes and the overall effectiveness of the physical
conditioning program as determined by changes in test
scores (73). A difference score is the difference between
an athlete’s score at the beginning and end of a training
period or between any two separate testing times. The
percent change is another measure that can be used.
However, evaluating the effectiveness of a training
program merely by degree of improvement has two
major limitations. First, athletes who begin the training
period at a higher training status will not improve as
much as untrained athletes who perform poorly at the
beginning of training. The window of adaptation for the
various physical capacities is typically greater for less
well-trained athletes (77). Secondly, athletes may deliberately
fail to give maximal effort on pretraining tests to
inflate their pre- to posttraining improvement scores. It
is important to encourage athletes to give maximal effort
on both the pre- and posttraining tests.
Types of Statistics
Statistics is the science of collecting, classifying, analyzing,
and interpreting numerical data (18, 110). A
working knowledge of statistics is helpful in making
sound evaluations of test results. There are different
branches of statistics such as descriptive and inferential.
Recently, scientists and practitioners in strength and conditioning
have made increasing use of magnitude-based
approaches, which can be more meaningful as they
provide information regarding the magnitude of change
that matters to the athlete in the given sport.
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics summarizes or describes a large
group of data. It is used when all the information about
a population is known. For example, if all the members
of a team are tested, statements can be made about the
team with the use of descriptive statistics. There are
three categories of numerical measurement in descriptive
statistics: central tendency, variability, and percentile
rank. In the sections that follow, these terms are defined
and examples of how to calculate the values and scores
are presented.
Central Tendency Measures of central tendency are
values about which the data tend to cluster. The three
most common measures of central tendency (18, 110)
are as follows:
Mean — the average of the scores (i.e., the sum of the
scores divided by the number of scores). This is the
most commonly used measure of central tendency.
Median — the middlemost score when a set of scores
is arranged in order of magnitude. With an even
number of scores, the median is the average of the
two middlemost scores. Half a group of scores falls
above the median and half falls below the median.
Depending on the distribution of scores, the median
can be a better measure of central tendency than
the mean. This is particularly true when very high
or very low scores of one or a few members of the
group tested raise or lower the group mean to the
extent that it does not adequately describe the ability
of most group members.
Mode — the score that occurs with the greatest frequency.
If each numerical score appears only once,
there is no mode. If two or more scores are “tied” for
greatest frequency, then all of the similar scores are
modes. The mode is generally regarded as the least
useful measure of central tendency.
Variability The degree of dispersion of scores within
a group is called variability. Two common measures
of variability are the range and the standard deviation.
The range is the interval from the lowest to the highest
score. The advantage of the range is that it is easy to
understand; the disadvantage is that it uses only the two
extreme scores and so may not be an accurate measure
of variability (110). For example, the range could be
the same for a group of widely dispersed scores as for
a group of scores that are narrowly dispersed except for
one deviant score. The standard deviation is a measure
of the variability of a set of scores about the mean. The
formula for the standard deviation of a sample is as
follows:
(13.1)
where S refers to a summation, x is a score, x¯ is the
mean of the scores, and n is the sample size (number of
scores). A relatively small standard deviation indicates
that a set of scores is closely clustered about the mean;
a large standard deviation indicates wider dispersion
of the scores about the mean. The standard deviation
is most useful when the group of scores is “normally
distributed,” forming the bell-shaped curve shown in
figure 13.21 (18, 51).
The z score can be used to express the distance of
any individual score in standard deviation (SD) units
from the mean:
z = (x — x¯ ) / SD (13.2)
For example, if an athlete runs the 40-yard (37 m) sprint
in 4.6 seconds and the mean and standard deviation for
the group tested are 5.00 and 0.33 seconds, respectively,
equation 13.2 can be applied to determine that the z
score for that athlete is -1.2. In other words, the athlete’s
score is 1.2 standard deviation units below (i.e.,
faster than) the group mean. Graphs can be a useful way
of representing z scores visually. This can provide the
strength and conditioning practitioner with a comparison
of different physical capacities and provide assistance
with making decisions on which weaknesses to target
with a training program (figure 13.22). In the example
shown, the strength and conditioning practitioner may
decide to focus on improving endurance and flexibility,
while also improving body composition (figure 13.22).
Percentile Rank An individual’s percentile rank is
the percentage of test takers scoring below that individual.
As in calculation of the median, percentile ranking
requires arranging scores ordinally (lowest to highest).
For example, if an athlete is ranked in the 75th percentile,
75% of the group produced scores below that athlete’s
score. Norms based on large samples are sometimes
expressed in evenly spaced percentiles. Several examples
of percentile rank tables are shown in tables 13.1 to
13.3, table 13.5, table 13.10, tables 13.13 to 13.17, and
table 13.22 near the end of the chapter.
Inferential Versus Magnitude Statistics
The use of inferential statistics allows one to draw
general conclusions about a population from information
collected in a population sample. For example, if a boys’
9th-grade gym class is put through a battery of tests and
it is assumed that the class (sample) is representative of
all the 9th-grade boys in the school (the population), then
the results of these tests can be used to make inferences
about the population as a whole. A basic assumption of
inferential statistics is that the sample is truly representative
of the population (18).
Magnitude statistics can provide a more useful
approach for practitioners because it allows for inter-
pretation of the clinical significance of fitness testing
(51). To describe and evaluate the magnitude of change
in a fitness test, measures such as smallest worthwhile
change and effect size are important.
Smallest worthwhile change refers to the ability of a
test to detect the smallest practically important change in
performance. The ability to track changes with a fitness
test depends on the validity and reliability of that test.
The smallest worthwhile change can be determined in a
number of ways, but it is typically calculated as 0.2 of the
between-subjects standard deviation (51). For example,
if the standard deviation for a vertical jump test is 10 cm
in a group of female athletes, this would mean that the
smallest worthwhile change for this group of athletes is
2 cm (0.2 ? 10 cm).
Effect size is a statistic that can be useful for calculating
group performance following a training program or
comparing between groups of athletes (29). The effect of
the training program can be calculated as the difference
or change in the mean score as a proportion of the pretest
standard deviation (equation 13.3).
ES = (x posttest — x pretest) / SD pretest (13.3)
For example, a group of athletes had a pretraining mean
bench press 1RM of 104.5 kg (standard deviation of 5.7
kg), and after a 12-week training intervention the mean
bench press is 111.7 kg. The calculated effect size would
be equal to (111.7–104.5)/5.7 = 1.26.
Several scales have been provided to compare the
magnitude of the effect (19, 73, 94), but reference values
for small (0.2), moderate (0.6), large (1.2), and very large
(2.0) can be a useful starting point for practitioners (29,
51). For the example just given, this would mean that
the strength and conditioning professional would interpret
the effect size of 1.26 as meaning that the training
program had a large effect.
Developing an Athletic Profile
To determine the sport-specific training status of an
athlete, the strength and conditioning professional can
combine the results of selected tests to generate an
athletic profile, which is a group of test results related
to sport-specific abilities that are important for quality
performance in a sport or sport position. When evaluating
athletes, the strength and conditioning professional
should follow these six steps:
1. Select tests that will measure the specific parameters
most closely related to the physical characteristics
of the sport or sports in question. For example,
a testing battery for wrestlers should include
tests for pulling strength, pushing strength, and
local muscular endurance.
2. Choose valid and reliable tests to measure these
parameters, and arrange the testing battery in an
appropriate order with sufficient rest between tests
to promote test reliability. For example, appropriate
tests for wrestling might include push-ups and
sit-ups for maximum repetitions in a given time
interval. These two tests should be separated by
at least 10 minutes of rest to allow recovery from
fatigue and thus promote accurate scores.
3. Administer the test battery with as many athletes
as possible.
4. Determine the smallest worthwhile change for
the tests and compare to normative data where
appropriate. It is recommended that coaches store
testing results and develop their own norms when
standardized procedures are used.
5. Conduct repeat testing (e.g., pre- and posttraining
program) and use the results to present a visual
profile with figures.
6. Use the results of the testing in some meaningful
way. Ideally the results will enable the
strength and conditioning professional to identify
the strengths and weaknesses of the athletes
and to design the training program with these in
mind.
Conclusion
Motor abilities and body composition variables that can
be improved through strength and conditioning programs
include maximum muscular strength, maximum muscular
power, anaerobic capacity, local muscular endurance,
aerobic capacity, agility, speed, flexibility, girths, percent
body fat, and lean body mass. Performance testing can
be used to evaluate basic motor abilities, as well as the
improvement of individual athletes over time and the
overall effectiveness of a physical conditioning program.
Numerous tests are available to measure sport-specific
physical capabilities and training status. Strength and
conditioning professionals can either use existing
normative data to evaluate athletic performance or
develop their own normative data. Statistical measures
of central tendency, variability, percentile rank, smallest
worthwhile change, effect size, and standard scores are
useful for evaluating physical abilities and the improvement
of a group as well as the individuals within the
group.