nsca cscs chapter 17 — program design for resistance training

Effective training programs involve the coordination of
many variables in a systematic fashion that enables the
body to adapt and performance level to improve. Having
a basic understanding of the physiological responses to
various training stimuli is essential in order for the practitioner
to be able to coordinate the various training aspects
successfully. When focusing on the resistance training
component of a comprehensive training program, it is
helpful to approach the task one program element at a
time, keeping in mind the primary principles of anaerobic
exercise prescription.
Principles of Anaerobic
Exercise Prescription
Resistance training programs for athletic populations
require attention to the principles of specificity, overload,
and progression. One of the most basic concepts
to incorporate in all training programs is specificity.
The term, first suggested by DeLorme in 1945 (14),
refers to the method whereby an athlete is trained in
a specific manner to produce a specific adaptation or
training outcome. In the case of resistance training,
specificity refers to aspects such as the muscles involved,
the movement pattern, and the nature of the muscle
action (e.g., speed of movement, force application), but
does not always reflect the combination of all of these
aspects. Importantly, it does not mean that all aspects
of the training must mimic that of the sporting skill. For
example, a squat movement is relevant to vertical jump
because it involves overcoming resistance in the same
movement and muscles that are involved in the vertical
jump, yet the speed of movement and force application
are disparate between the squat and vertical jump.
Sometimes used interchangeably with specificity is the
acronym SAID, which stands for specific adaptation to
imposed demands. The underlying principle is that the
type of demand placed on the body dictates the type of
adaptation that will occur. For instance, athletes training
for power in high-speed movements (e.g., baseball pitch,
tennis serve) should attempt to activate or recruit the
same motor units required by their sport at the highest
velocity possible (8, 86). Specificity also relates to the
athlete’s sport season. As an athlete progresses through
the preseason, in-season, and postseason, all forms
of training should gradually progress in an organized
manner from generalized to sport specific (1). Although
participation in the sport itself provides the greatest
opportunity to improve performance in the sport, proper
application of the specificity principle certainly increases
the likelihood that other training will also positively
contribute to performance.
Overload refers to assigning a workout or training
regimen of greater intensity than the athlete is accustomed
to. Without the stimulus of overload, even an
otherwise well-designed program greatly limits an
athlete’s ability to make improvements. The obvious
application of this principle in the design of resistance
training programs involves increasing the loads assigned
in the exercises. Other more subtle changes include
increasing the number of sessions per week (or per day
in some instances), adding exercises or sets, emphasizing
complex over simple exercises, decreasing the length
of the rest periods between sets and exercises, or any
combination of these or other changes. The intent is to
stress the body at a higher level than it is used to. When
the overload principle is properly applied, overtraining
is avoided and the desired training adaptation will occur.
If a training program is to continue producing higher
levels of performance, the intensity of the training
must become progressively greater. Progression, when
applied properly, promotes long-term training benefits.
Although it is customary to focus only on the resistance
used, one can progressively increase training intensity by
raising the number of weekly training sessions, adding
more drills or exercises to each session, changing the
type or technical requirements of the drills or exercises,
or otherwise increasing the training stimulus. For
example, an athlete may progress from the front squat to
learning the hang power clean and eventually the power
clean as a technical progression. The issue of importance
is that progression is based on the athlete’s training status
and is introduced systematically and gradually.
Designing a resistance training program is a complex
process that requires the recognition and manipulation
of seven program design variables (referred to in this
chapter as steps 1 through 7). This chapter discusses
each variable, shown in the sidebar, in the context of
three scenarios that enable the strength and conditioning
professional to see how training principles and program
design guidelines can be integrated into an overall
program.
The three scenarios include a basketball center (scenario
A) in her preseason, an American football offensive
lineman (scenario B) during his off-season, and a
cross-country runner (scenario C) during his in-season.
It is understood that in each scenario, the athlete is well
conditioned for his or her sport, has no musculoskeletal
dysfunction, and has been cleared for training and
competition by the sports medicine staff. The athletes in
scenarios A (basketball center) and B (American football
lineman) have been resistance training since high school,
are accustomed to lifting heavy loads, and are skilled
in machine and free weight exercises. The high school
cross-country runner in scenario C, in contrast, began a
resistance training program in the preseason only four
weeks ago, so his training is limited and his exercise
technique skills are not well developed.
Step 1: Needs Analysis
The strength and conditioning professional’s initial task
is to perform a needs analysis, a two-stage process that
includes an evaluation of the requirements and characteristics
of the sport and an assessment of the athlete.
Evaluation of the Sport
The first task in a needs analysis is to determine the
unique characteristics of the sport, which includes
the general physiological and biomechanical profile,
common injury sites, and position-specific attributes.
This information enables the strength and conditioning
professional to design a program specific to those
requirements and characteristics. Although this task can
be approached in several ways (30), it should at least
include consideration of the following attributes of the
sport (20, 43):
• Body and limb movement patterns and muscular
involvement (movement analysis)
• Strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular
endurance priorities (physiological analysis)
• Common sites for joint and muscle injury and
causative factors (injury analysis)
Other characteristics of a sport — such as cardiovascular
endurance, speed, agility, and flexibility requirements —
should also be evaluated. This chapter, however,
focuses only on the physiological outcomes that
specifically relate to resistance training program design:
strength, power, hypertrophy, and muscular endurance.
For example, a movement analysis of the shot-put
field event reveals that it is an all-body movement that
begins with the athlete in a semicrouched stance, with
many joints flexed and adducted, and culminates in an
upright stance with many joints extended and abducted.
The most heavily recruited muscles (not in order) are
the elbow extensors (triceps brachii), shoulder abductors
(deltoids), hip extensors (gluteals, hamstrings), knee
extensors (quadriceps), and ankle plantar flexors (soleus,
gastrocnemius). Physiologically, shot putting requires
high levels of strength and power for a successful
performance. Also, enhanced muscular hypertrophy is
advantageous since the muscle’s ability to produce force
increases as its cross-sectional area becomes greater
(40). The muscular endurance requirement is minimal,
however. Due to the repetitive nature of training and
competition, the muscles and tendons surrounding the
shoulder and elbow joints tend to be injured due to
overuse (98).
Assessment of the Athlete
The second task is to profile the athlete’s needs and goals
by evaluating training (and injury) status, conducting a
variety of tests (e.g., maximum strength testing), evaluating
the results, and determining the primary goal of
training. The more individualized the assessment process,
the more specific the resistance training program
for each athlete can be.
Training Status
An athlete’s current condition or level of preparedness
to begin a new or revised program (training status)
is an important consideration in the design of training
programs. This includes an evaluation by a sports medicine
professional of any current or previous injuries
that may affect training. Also important is the athlete’s
training background or exercise history (training that
occurred before he or she began a new or revised program),
because this information will help the strength
and conditioning professional better understand the athlete’s
training capabilities. An assessment of the athlete’s
training background should examine the
• type of training program (sprint, plyometric,
resistance, and so on),
• length of recent regular participation in previous
training program(s),
• level of intensity involved in previous training
program(s), and
• degree of exercise technique experience (i.e., the
knowledge and skill to perform resistance training
exercises properly).
Table 17.1 provides an example of how such information
might be used to classify athletes’ training status
as beginner, intermediate, or advanced. The strength
and conditioning professional should realize that the
three classifications exist on a continuum and cannot
be definitively demarcated.
Physical Testing and Evaluation
Physical evaluation involves conducting assessments of
the athlete’s strength, flexibility, power, speed, muscular
endurance, body composition, cardiovascular endurance,
and so on. In this chapter, the needs analysis focuses on
assessing maximal muscular strength, but a comprehensive
assessment goes beyond that.
To yield pertinent and reliable data that can be used
effectively to develop a resistance training program, the
tests selected should be related to the athlete’s sport,
consistent with the athlete’s level of skill, and realistically
based on the equipment available. The result of
the movement analysis discussed previously provides
direction in selecting tests. Typically, major upper body
exercises (e.g., bench press and shoulder press) and
exercises that mimic jumping movements to varying
degrees (e.g., power clean, squat, leg press) are used in
testing batteries.
After testing is completed, the results should be compared
with normative or descriptive data to determine
the athlete’s strengths and weaknesses. Based on this
evaluation and the needs analysis of the sport, a training
program can be developed to improve deficiencies,
maintain strengths, or further develop physiological
qualities that will enable the athlete to better meet the
demands of the sport.
Primary Resistance Training Goal
The athlete’s test results, the movement and physiological
analysis of the sport, and the priorities of the
athlete’s sport season determine the primary goal or
outcome for the resistance training program. Typically,
this goal is to improve strength, power, hypertrophy,
or muscular endurance. Despite a potential desire or
need to make improvements in two different areas (e.g.,
strength and muscular endurance), an effort should be
made to concentrate on only one training outcome per
season. An example of how the strength and conditioning
professional may prioritize the resistance training
emphases during the four main sport seasons is shown
in table 17.2.
Step 2: Exercise Selection
Exercise selection involves choosing exercises for a
resistance training program. To make informed exercise
selections, the strength and conditioning professional
must understand the nature of various types of resistance
training exercises, the movement and muscular
requirements of the sport, the athlete’s exercise technique
experience, the equipment available, and the amount of
training time available.
Exercise Type
Although there are literally hundreds of resistance
training exercises to select from when one is designing
a program, most involve primary muscle groups or body
areas and fall into categories based on their relative
importance to the athlete’s sport.
Core and Assistance Exercises
Exercises can be classified as either core or assistance
based on the size of the muscle areas involved and their
level of contribution to a particular sport movement.
Core exercises recruit one or more large muscle areas
(i.e., chest, shoulder, back, hip, or thigh), involve two or
more primary joints (multijoint exercises), and receive
priority when one is selecting exercises because of their
direct application to the sport. Assistance exercises
usually recruit smaller muscle areas (i.e., upper arm,
abdominal muscles, calf, neck, forearm, lower back,
or anterior lower leg), involve only one primary joint
(single-joint exercises), and are considered less important
to improving sport performance. Generally, all the
joints at the shoulder — the glenohumeral and shoulder
girdle articulations — are considered one primary joint
when resistance training exercises are categorized as
core or assistance. The spine is similarly considered a
single primary joint (as in the abdominal crunch and
back extension exercises).
A common application of assistance exercises is for
injury prevention and rehabilitation, as these exercises
often isolate a specific muscle or muscle group. The
muscles that are predisposed to injury from the unique
demands of a sport skill (e.g., the shoulder external
rotators for overhand pitching) or those that require
reconditioning after an injury (e.g., a quadriceps contusion)
can be specifically conditioned by an assistance
exercise.
Structural and Power Exercises
A core exercise that emphasizes loading the spine
directly (e.g., back squat) or indirectly (e.g., power clean)
can be further described as a structural exercise. More
specifically, a structural exercise involves muscular stabilization
of posture during performance of the lifting
movement (e.g., maintaining a rigid torso and a neutral
spine during the back squat). A structural exercise that
is performed very quickly or explosively is considered a
power exercise. Typically, power exercises are assigned
to athletes when they are appropriate for the athlete’s
sport-specific training priorities (45).
Movement Analysis of the Sport
In the needs analysis (step 1), the strength and conditioning
professional has identified the unique requirements
and characteristics of the sport. The exercises selected for
a resistance training program that focus on conditioning
for a particular sport need to be relevant to the activities
of that sport in their body and limb movement patterns,
joint ranges of motion, and muscular involvement. The
exercises should also create muscular balance to reduce
risk of injury from disproportionate training.
Sport-Specific Exercises
The more similar the training activity is to the actual
sport movement, the greater the likelihood that there
will be a positive transfer to that sport (8, 19, 20, 42,
72, 86). This is the specificity concept, also called the
specific adaptation to imposed demands (SAID) principle.
Table 17.3 provides examples of resistance training
exercises that relate in varying degrees to the movement
patterns of various sports. The strength and conditioning
professional should find this table helpful when trying
to identify sport-specific exercises. For example, the
primary muscles involved in jumping for basketball are
the hip and knee extensors. An athlete can exercise these
muscles by performing the leg press or back squat, but
which exercise is preferable? Certainly both exercises
strengthen the hip and knee extensors, but because
jumping is performed from an erect body position with
balance and weight-bearing forces as considerations, the
back squat is more relevant to jumping and is therefore
preferred over the leg press (97). The power clean and
snatch are relevant to jumping because of their quick
movement characteristics, thereby applying a fast rate
of force development and high power.
Muscle Balance
Exercises selected for the specific demands of the sport
should maintain a balance of muscular strength across
joints and between opposing muscle groups (e.g., biceps
brachii and triceps brachii). Avoid designing a resistance
training program that increases the risk of injury due to a
disparity between the strength of the agonist, the muscle
or muscle group actively causing the movement (e.g., the
quadriceps in the leg [knee] extension exercise), and the
antagonist, the sometimes passive (i.e., not concentrically
involved) muscle or muscle group located on the
opposite side of the limb (e.g., the hamstrings in the leg
[knee] extension exercise). If an imbalance is created or
discovered, exercises to restore an appropriate strength
balance need to be selected. For example, if isokinetic
testing reveals that the hamstrings are extremely weak
compared with the quadriceps, additional hamstring
exercises could be included to compensate for the
imbalance (20, 72, 86). Note that muscle balance
does not always mean equal strength, just a proper
ratio of strength, power, or muscular endurance of one
muscle or muscle group relative to another muscle or
muscle group.
Exercises to Promote Recovery
Exercises that do not involve high muscular stress and
high stress on the nervous system but promote movement
and restoration can be classified as recovery exercise.
These exercises are generally included at the conclusion
of the main resistance training session, or as a separate
session within the microcycle, aimed at promoting recovery
and restoration. They can take the form of lightly
loaded resistance exercises or low-intensity aerobic
exercise to assist the body in returning to its preexercise
state (8). These exercises assist in the removal of
metabolic wastes and by-products and maintain some
amount of blood flow to the exercised muscles so the
repair processes can be optimized.
Exercise Technique Experience
An important part of the needs analysis described earlier
is evaluating the athlete’s training status and exercise
technique experience. If there is any question whether an
athlete can perform an exercise with proper technique,
the strength and conditioning professional should ask
the athlete to demonstrate the exercise. If the athlete
uses incorrect technique, the strength and conditioning
professional should provide complete instruction. Often,
unskilled individuals are introduced to machines and free
weight assistance exercises (20) because these are considered
easier to perform than free weight core exercises
due to their lower balance and coordination requirements
(20, 86). Despite this, one should not assume that the
athlete will perform exercises correctly, even those that
are relatively easy to perform.
Availability of Resistance
Training Equipment
The availability of training equipment must be considered
in the selection of exercises. A lack of certain equipment
may necessitate selecting exercises that are not as
sport specific. For example, the absence of Olympic-type
barbells with revolving sleeves would preclude exercises
such as the power clean, and an insufficient supply of
barbell plates may result in substituting exercises that
do not require as much resistance; for example, the back
squat could be replaced by the front squat.
Available Training Time per Session
The strength and conditioning professional should weigh
the value of certain exercises against the time it takes to
perform them. Some exercises take longer to complete
than others. If time for a training session is limited,
exercises that are more time efficient may need to be
given priority over others. For example, the machine leg
press could be selected instead of the free weight lunge
to train the hips and thighs of a 100 m sprinter. The time
required to move the machine pin to the correct slot in a
weight stack and perform 10 repetitions of a machine leg
press is much less than the time required for the lunge
exercise, for which the athlete has to load both ends of a
bar, attach the locks, back out of the power rack, establish
a stable starting position, perform 10 repetitions of each
leg, and rerack the bar. Although the machine leg press is
less sport specific, the time saved may permit including
other exercises or performing more sets. The benefit of
including the more sport-specific lunge exercise, on the
other hand, may be worth the additional time needed,
although this depends on the goals of the training season
and time available.
Step 3: Training Frequency
Training frequency refers to the number of training sessions
completed in a given time period. For a resistance
training program, a common time period is one week.
When determining training frequency, the strength and
conditioning professional should consider the athlete’s
training status, sport season, projected exercise loads,
types of exercises, and other concurrent training or
activities.
Training Status
The athlete’s level of preparedness for training, which
was determined during the needs analysis (step 1), is
an influential factor in determining training frequency
because it affects the number of rest days needed between
training sessions. Traditionally, three workouts per week
are recommended for many athletes, because the intervening
days allow sufficient recovery between sessions
(20). As an athlete adapts to training and becomes better
conditioned, it is appropriate to consider increasing the
number of training days to four and, with additional
training, maybe five, six, or seven (see table 17.4).
The general guideline is to schedule training sessions
so as to include at least one rest or recovery day — but
not more than three — between sessions that stress the
same muscle groups (38). For example, if a strength and
conditioning professional wants a beginning athlete to
perform a total body resistance training program two
times per week, the sessions should be spaced out evenly
(e.g., Monday and Thursday or Tuesday and Friday).
If the athlete trains only on Monday and Wednesday,
the absence of a training stimulus between Wednesday
and the following Monday may result in a decrease in
the athlete’s training status (16, 24, 38), although, for a
short time in well-trained athletes, one session a week
can maintain strength (16, 24).
More highly resistance-trained (intermediate or
advanced) athletes can augment their training by using
a split routine in which different muscle groups are
trained on different days. Training nearly every day
may seem to violate the recommended guidelines for
recovery, but grouping exercises that train a portion of
the body (e.g., upper body or lower body) or certain
muscle areas (e.g., chest, shoulder, and triceps) gives
the trained athlete an opportunity to adequately recover
between similar training sessions (see table 17.5). For
instance, a common lower body–upper body regimen
includes four training sessions per week: lower body
on Monday and Thursday and upper body on Tuesday
and Friday (or vice versa). This way, there are two or
three days of rest between each upper or lower body
training session, even though the athlete trains on two
consecutive days twice a week (39). For split routines
with three distinct training days, the rest days are not on
the same day each week.
Sport Season
Another influence on resistance training frequency is
the sport season. For example, the increased emphasis
on practicing the sport skill during the in-season necessitates
a decrease in the time spent in the weight room
and, consequently, reduces the frequency of resistance
training (see tables 17.2 and 17.6). The problem is that
there simply is not enough time to fit all the desired
modes of training into each day. So, even though a
well-trained athlete may be capable of completing four
or more resistance training sessions per week, the other
time demands of the sport may not permit this.
Training Load and Exercise Type
Athletes who train with maximal or near-maximal loads
require more recovery time before their next training session
(20, 74, 86). The ability to train more frequently may
be enhanced by alternating lighter and heavier training
days (20, 86). There is also evidence that upper body
muscles can recover more quickly from heavy loading
sessions than lower body muscles (37). The same is true
regarding an athlete’s ability to recover faster from single-
joint exercises compared to multijoint exercises (85).
These research findings may explain why, for example,
powerlifters may schedule only one very heavy deadlift
or squat training session per week.
Other Training
Exercise frequency is also influenced by the overall
amount of physical stress, so the strength and conditioning
professional must consider the effects of all forms
of exercise. If the athlete’s program already includes
aerobic or anaerobic (e.g., sprinting, agility, speed-endurance,
plyometric) training, sport skill practice, or any
combination of these components, the frequency of resistance
training may need to be reduced (13). Additionally,
the effects of a physically demanding occupation may
be relevant. Athletes who work in manual labor jobs,
instruct or assist others in physical activities, or are on
their feet all day may not be able to withstand the same
training frequency as athletes who are less active outside
of their sport-related pursuits.
Step 4: Exercise Order
Exercise order refers to a sequence of resistance exercises
performed during one training session. Although
there are many ways to arrange exercises, decisions are
invariably based on how one exercise affects the quality
of effort or the technique of another exercise. Usually
exercises are arranged so that an athlete’s maximal
force capabilities are available (from a sufficient rest or
recovery period) to complete a set with proper exercise
technique. Four of the most common methods of ordering
resistance exercises are described in the following
paragraphs.
Power, Other Core, Then Assistance
Exercises
Power exercises such as the snatch, hang clean, power
clean, and push jerk should be performed first in a training
session, followed by other nonpower core exercises
and then assistance exercises (20, 83, 88). The literature
also refers to this arrangement as multijoint exercises and
then single-joint exercises or large muscle areas and then
small muscle areas (18, 20, 72, 86, 90). Power exercises
require the highest level of skill and concentration of
all the exercises and are most affected by fatigue (20).
Athletes who become fatigued are prone to using poor
technique and consequently are at higher risk of injury.
The explosive movements and extensive muscular
involvement of power exercises also result in significant
energy expenditure (86). This is another reason to have
athletes perform such exercises first, while they are still
metabolically fresh. If power exercises are not selected
in step 2 (exercise selection), then the recommended
order of exercises is core exercises and then assistance
exercises.
Upper and Lower Body Exercises
(Alternated)
One method of providing the opportunity for athletes
to recover more fully between exercises is to alternate
upper body exercises with lower body exercises. This
arrangement is especially helpful for untrained individuals
who find that completing several upper or lower
body exercises in succession is too strenuous (20, 72).
Also, if training time is limited, this method of arranging
exercises minimizes the length of the rest periods
required between exercises and maximizes the rest
between body areas. The result is a decrease in overall
training time, because the athlete can perform an upper
body exercise and then immediately go to a lower body
exercise without having to wait for the upper body to
rest. If the exercises are performed with minimal rest
periods (20–30 seconds), this method is also referred to
as circuit training — a method sometimes also used to
improve cardiorespiratory endurance (23), although to a
lesser extent than conventional aerobic exercise training.
“Push” and “Pull” Exercises
(Alternated)
Another method of improving recovery and recruitment
between exercises is to alternate pushing exercises (e.g.,
bench press, shoulder press, and triceps extension) with
pulling exercises (e.g., lat pulldown, bent-over row,
biceps curl) (2). This push–pull arrangement ensures that
the same muscle group will not be used in two exercises
(or sets, in some cases) in succession, thus reducing
fatigue in the involved muscles. In contrast, arranging
several pulling exercises (e.g., pull-up, seated row,
hammer curl) one after the other, even with a rest period
between each, will compromise the number of repetitions
performed because the biceps brachii muscle (involved
in all three exercises) will become less responsive due
to fatigue. The same result would occur if several pushing
exercises (e.g., incline bench press, shoulder press,
triceps pushdown) were sequentially arranged (all three
engage the triceps brachii) (83). There are also push–pull
arrangements for the lower body — for example, leg
press and back squat as “push” and stiff-leg deadlift
and leg (knee) curl as “pull” — but the classification of
some exercises as “push” or “pull” is not as clear (e.g.,
leg [knee] extension). The alternation of push and pull
exercises is also used in circuit training programs and is
an ideal arrangement for athletes beginning or returning
to a resistance training program (3, 20).
Supersets and Compound Sets
Other methods of arranging exercises involve having
athletes perform one set of a pair of exercises with
little to no rest between them. Two common examples
are supersets and compound sets. A superset involves
two sequentially performed exercises that stress two
opposing muscles or muscle areas (i.e., an agonist and
its antagonist) (2). For example, an athlete performs
10 repetitions of the barbell biceps curl exercise, sets
the bar down, then goes over to the triceps pushdown
station and performs 10 repetitions. A compound set
involves sequentially performing two different exercises
for the same muscle group (2). For instance, an athlete
completes a set of the barbell biceps curl exercise, then
switches to dumbbells and immediately performs a set
of the hammer curl exercise. In this case, the stress on
the same muscle is compounded because both exercises
recruit the same muscle area. Both methods of arranging
and performing pairs of exercises are time efficient and
purposely more demanding — and consequently may
not be appropriate for unconditioned athletes. Note,
however, that sometimes the meanings of superset and
compound set are interchanged (20).
Step 5: Training Load
and Repetitions
Load most simply refers to the amount of weight
assigned to an exercise set and is often characterized as
the most critical aspect of a resistance training program
(20, 63, 73, 86).
Terminology Used to Quantify
and Qualify Mechanical Work
Mechanical work can be defined as the product of force
and displacement (sometimes referred to as distance).
An athlete can perform (external) mechanical work via
demands made on the body to generate (internal) metabolic
energy. Thus, it is important to quantify the amount
of mechanical work or degree of metabolic demand in
order to plan variation in the training program and to
avoid the exhaustion phase of Selye’s General Adaptation
Syndrome associated with overtraining (8).
A quantity measure for resistance training “work” is
needed. Traditionally, at least in the sport of Olympic
weightlifting, this “work” is called the “load,” and one
can calculate it by multiplying each weight lifted by the
number of times it is lifted and summing all such values
over a training session.
However, volume-load (48, 77) may be a better
term than just load. This quantity is highly related to
mechanical work (59, 60, 62) and the associated metabolic
energy demands and physiological stress, and
also is distinguished from repetition-volume (rep-volume)
(i.e., the total number of repetitions; see “Step 6:
Volume” for more explanation).
To explain volume-load further, if a barbell that has
100 “weight units” is lifted 2 vertical “distance units” for
15 repetitions, the total concentric mechanical work is
3,000 “work units” (100 ? 2 ? 15). However, volumeload
(1,500 units) does not include the distance value
but is still directly related to the amount of mechanical
work performed and the extent of the metabolic demand
the athlete experiences to lift the weight for the required
repetitions. Volume-load should be considered as system
mass volume-load in the calculation of resistance
training in which the athlete or a mass is moved (e.g.,
loaded jump squats) (10, 59, 61). For example, an 80
kg athlete with a 40 kg jump squat load for four sets of
three is doing 120 kg ? 12, or 1,440 kg. Volume-load
approaches are also very useful in quantifying the nature
of the total resistance training load, by separating the
volume-load from core and assistance exercises or
delineating between hypertrophy, maximal strength, and
power training. In this way, the strength and conditioning
practitioner can plan or determine not just the total
volume-load for the session, but also what stimulus is
achieved primarily from the session.
Note that the volume-load is not affected by the rep
and set scheme (i.e., 15 sets of 1 repetition, 5 sets of 3
repetitions, 3 sets of 5 repetitions, or 1 set of 15 repetitions).
Various repetition and set schemes affect the
true intensity value for resistance exercise and indicate
the quality of work performed. Instead of using time to
calculate mechanical or metabolic power or intensity, it is
more practical to use a value that is proportional to time,
namely, rep-volume. The more repetitions performed,
the longer the training session (rest period lengths are an
additional consideration and are not directly accounted
for). Dividing volume-load by rep-volume results in the
average weight lifted per repetition per workout session
(86). This is a good approximation for mechanical and
metabolic power output, which are true intensity or
quality of work parameters.
Relationship Between Load
and Repetitions
The number of times an exercise can be performed
(repetitions) is inversely related to the load lifted; the
heavier the load, the lower the number of repetitions that
can be performed. Therefore, focusing on one training
goal automatically implies the use of a certain load and
repetition regimen (e.g., training for muscular strength
involves lifting heavy loads for few repetitions).
Before assigning training loads, the strength and conditioning
professional should understand this relationship
between loads and repetitions. Load is commonly
described as either a certain percentage of a 1-repetition
maximum (1RM) — the greatest amount of weight that
can be lifted with proper technique for only one repetition —
or the most weight lifted for a specified number
of repetitions, a repetition maximum (RM) (19). For
instance, if athletes can perform 10 repetitions with 60
kg in the back squat exercise, the 10RM is 60 kg. It is
he or she had stopped at nine repetitions but could have
performed one more, a 10RM would not have been
achieved. Likewise, if he or she lifted 55 kg for 10 repetitions
(but could have performed more), the true 10RM
was not accurately assessed because the athlete possibly
could have lifted 60 kg for 10 repetitions.
Table 17.7 shows the relationship between a submaximal
load — calculated as a percentage of the 1RM — and
the number of repetitions that can be performed at that
load. By definition, 100% of the 1RM allows the athlete
to perform one repetition. As the percentage of the
1RM (i.e., the load lifted) decreases, the athlete will be
able to successfully complete more repetitions. Other
%1RM–repetition tables with slightly different %1RM
values can be found in the literature (9, 49, 54, 65), but
they vary by only about 0.5 to 2 percentage points from
those provided in table 17.7.
Although %1RM–repetition tables provide helpful
guidelines for assigning an athlete’s training loads,
research to date does not support the widespread use
of such tables for establishing training loads for every
exercise assigned to athletes, for the following reasons:
• Table 17.7 assumes there is a linear association
between the loads lifted and the repetitions performed;
however, several studies have reported a
curvilinear relationship (51, 54, 56).
• Resistance-trained athletes may be able to exceed
the number of repetitions listed in the table at any
given percentage of their 1RM, especially in lower
body core exercises (35, 36).
• The number of repetitions that can be performed at
a certain percent of the 1RM is based on a single
set. When an athlete performs multiple sets, the
loads may need to be reduced so that the desired
number of repetitions can be completed in all of
the sets (20).
• Despite the prevalence of 1RM research, athletes
may not always perform the predicted number of
repetitions at a specified percentage of a 1RM (20,
90). For instance, studies conducted by Hoeger
and colleagues (35, 36) showed that subjects were
able to perform two or three times more repetitions
than are listed in table 17.7.
• A certain percentage of the 1RM assigned to a
machine exercise can result in more repetitions
at the same percentage of the 1RM than with a
similar free weight exercise (35, 36).
• Exercises involving smaller muscle areas may
not produce as many repetitions as seen in table
17.7, and exercises recruiting large muscle areas
are likely to result in more repetitions performed
(90).
• The most accurate relationship between percentages
of the 1RM and the maximum repetitions
possible is for loads greater than 75% of the
1RM and fewer than 10 repetitions (9, 84, 94).
Empirical evidence further suggests that as the
percentage of the 1RM decreases, the variability
in the number of repetitions that can be completed
increases.
Therefore, loads calculated from the %1RM in table
17.7 should be used only as a guideline for estimating
a particular RM load for a resistance training exercise.
Even with the inherent weaknesses just explained,
it appears that it is still more accurate to assign
loads based on a percentage of a test-established 1RM
than it is to estimate a 1RM from a submaximal load
(34, 35).
1RM and Multiple-RM Testing Options
To gather information needed to assign a training load,
the strength and conditioning professional has the option
of determining the athlete’s
• actual 1RM (directly tested),
• estimated 1RM from a multiple-RM test (e.g., a
10RM), or
• multiple RM based on the number of repetitions
planned for that exercise (the “goal” repetitions;
e.g., five repetitions per set).
Once the actual 1RM is measured or estimated, the
athlete’s training load is calculated as a percentage of
the 1RM. Alternatively, a multiple-RM test may be performed
based on goal repetitions, thereby eliminating
computations or estimations. In many cases, the strength
and conditioning professional will use a variety of testing
options depending on the exercises selected and the
athlete’s training background. A common strategy for
testing sufficiently conditioned athletes is to conduct a
1RM test in several core exercises and use multiple-RM
testing for assistance exercises.
Testing the 1RM
To assign training loads based on a percentage of the
1RM, the strength and conditioning professional must
first determine the athlete’s 1RM. This method of assessment
is typically reserved for resistance-trained athletes
who are classified as intermediate or advanced and have
exercise technique experience in the exercises being
tested. Individuals who are untrained, inexperienced,
injured, or medically supervised may not be appropriate
participants for 1RM testing. One-repetition maximum
testing requires an adequate training status and lifting
experience, as the assessment of maximal strength places
significant stress on the involved muscles, connective
tissues, and joints. Thus, it has been suggested that a
3RM test could be used instead of a maximal 1RM test
(90). Ignoring an athlete’s training status and exercise
technique experience diminishes the safety and accuracy
of 1RM test results.
When selecting exercises for 1RM testing, the
strength and conditioning professional should choose
core exercises, because the large muscle groups and
multiple joints are better able to handle the heavy loads.
Despite this guideline, an exercise should not be selected
for 1RM testing if it cannot provide valid and reliable
data (i.e., does not accurately and consistently assess
maximal muscular strength). For instance, the large
upper back musculature and multiple joints involved
in the bent-over row exercise can probably tolerate the
loads from a 1RM test, but maintaining a correct body
position throughout testing would be extremely difficult.
The weaker stabilizing muscles of the lower back might
become very fatigued after several testing sets, resulting
in a loss of proper exercise technique and invalid and
potentially unreliable test data.
A variety of procedures can be used to accurately
determine a 1RM; one method is described in figure
17.1. Despite an orderly testing sequence, variations in
training status and exercise type will affect the absolute
load increases in sequential testing sets. For example,
the gradual load increase for 1RM attempts for an athlete
who can back squat 495 pounds (225 kg) may be 20 to
30 pounds (9–14 kg) per testing set. For a weaker athlete
with a back squat 1RM of 100 pounds (45 kg), a 20- or
30-pound testing load increment is too aggressive and
is not precise enough to yield an accurate 1RM value.
To improve the appropriateness and accuracy of the
sequential testing sets, figure 17.1 also includes relative
percentages that can be used instead of the absolute load
adjustments.
1RM Testing Protocol
1. Instruct the athlete to warm up with a light resistance that easily allows 5 to 10 repetitions.
2. Provide a 1-minute rest period.
3. Estimate a warm-up load that will allow the athlete to complete three to five repetitions by adding
• 10 to 20 pounds (4–9 kg) or 5% to 10% for upper body exercise or
• 30 to 40 pounds (14–18 kg) or 10% to 20% for lower body exercise.
4. Provide a 2-minute rest period.
5. Estimate a conservative, near-maximal load that will allow the athlete to complete two or three repetitions
by adding
• 10 to 20 pounds (4–9 kg) or 5% to 10% for upper body exercise or
• 30 to 40 pounds (14–18 kg) or 10% to 20% for lower body exercise.
6. Provide a 2- to 4-minute rest period.
7. Make a load increase:
• 10 to 20 pounds (4–9 kg) or 5% to 10% for upper body exercise or
• 30 to 40 pounds (14–18 kg) or 10% to 20% for lower body exercise
8. Instruct the athlete to attempt a 1RM.
9. If the athlete was successful, provide a 2- to 4-minute rest period and go back to step 7. If the athlete
failed, provide a 2- to 4-minute rest period; then decrease the load by subtracting
• 5 to 10 pounds (2–4 kg) or 2.5% to 5% for upper body exercise or
• 15 to 20 pounds (7–9 kg) or 5% to 10% for lower body exercise.
AND then go back to step 8.
Continue increasing or decreasing the load until the athlete can complete one repetition with proper exercise
technique. Ideally, the athlete’s 1RM will be measured within three to five testing sets.

Estimating a 1RM
When maximal strength testing is not warranted, testing
with a 10RM load (and then estimating or predicting the
1RM) can be a suitable secondary option. This approach
is appropriate for nearly all athletes, provided they
can demonstrate the proper technique in the exercise
tested. Core and assistance exercises can be selected for
10RM testing, but excessive warm-up and testing sets
may fatigue the athlete and compromise the accuracy
of the test. Additionally, power exercises do not lend
themselves well to multiple-RM testing above five repetitions
for repeated testing sets because technique can
deteriorate rapidly (8, 86). Lower (and more accurate)
multiple-RM determinations using heavier loads can
be made once the athlete has sufficient training and
technique experience.
The protocol for 10RM testing is similar to that for
1RM testing, but each set requires 10 repetitions, not
one. After the completion of warm-up sets, the athlete’s
sequential load changes for the 10RM test are smaller
than those listed in figure 17.1 (approximately one-half).
Continue the process of testing until a load allowing only
10 repetitions is determined. An experienced strength
and conditioning professional will be able to adjust the
loads so that the 10RM can be measured within three
to five testing sets.
Using a 1RM Table To estimate the athlete’s 1RM,
consult table 17.8. In the “Max reps (RM)” = 10 (%1RM
= 75) column, first find the tested 10RM load; then read
across the row to the “Max reps (RM)” = 1 (%1RM =
100) column to discover the athlete’s projected 1RM.
For example, if an athlete’s 10RM is 300 pounds, the
estimated 1RM is 400 pounds. As noted in connection
with table 17.7, the %1RM–repetition associations
vary in the literature. This table is intended for use as a
guide until the athlete has developed the neuromuscular
attributes that will make testing with heavier loads (e.g.,
1RM-5RM) safe and effective (20, 86).
Using Prediction Equations Equations are also available
to predict the 1RM from multiple-RM loads (9, 54).
Researchers who have reviewed such equations report
that as the loads used in multiple-RM testing become
heavier (i.e., bringing the loads closer to the actual 1RM),
the accuracy of the 1RM estimation increases. Likewise,
predictions are more accurate when the equations are
based on loads equal to or less than a 10RM (9, 55, 84,
86, 94). Furthermore, the results obtained from lower
multiple-RM testing (and subsequent predictions of
the 1RM) are generally more accurate when an athlete
has been consistently training with low multiple-RM
resistances (i.e., heavy loads) for a few months before
testing (8).
Multiple-RM Testing Based
on Goal Repetitions
A third option for determining training loads requires
the strength and conditioning professional to first decide
on the number of repetitions (i.e., the goal repetitions)
the athlete will perform in the actual program for the
exercise being tested. For example, if the strength and
conditioning professional decides that the athlete should
perform six repetitions for the bench press exercise in
the training program, the multiple-RM testing protocol
should have the athlete perform the exercise with a load
that will result in six repetitions (6RM). Core and assistance
exercises can be selected for multiple-RM testing,
but, as previously mentioned, high-repetition testing sets
can create significant fatigue and may compromise the
accuracy of the tested multiple RM. This effect seems to
be more problematic for exercises that involve multiple
joints and large muscle areas due to their high metabolic
demand (86). Further, multiple-RM testing (and subsequent
load assignments) for assistance exercises should
be at or above an 8RM to minimize the isolative stress
on the involved joint and connective tissue (2, 18). In
other words, even if an athlete is following a muscular
strength training program that involves 2RM loads for
the core exercises, the heaviest load the assistance exercises
should be assigned is an 8RM.
Assigning Load and Repetitions Based
on the Training Goal
During the needs analysis, the strength and conditioning
professional is challenged to choose the primary goal
of the resistance training program based on the athlete’s
testing results, the movement and physiological
analysis of the sport, and the priorities of the athlete’s
sport season. Once decided on, the training goal can
be applied to determine specific load and repetition
assignments via the RM continuum, a percentage of the
1RM (either directly tested or estimated), or the results
of multiple-RM testing. As explained previously, the
testing methods determine how the loads and repetitions
are assigned for each exercise (i.e., loads are calculated
as a percentage of a tested or estimated 1RM, or training
loads are specifically determined from multiple-RM
testing). The options for testing and assigning training
loads and repetitions are summarized in figure 17.2.
Repetition Maximum Continuum
Figure 17.3 shows how RM ranges are associated with
training goals; relatively heavy loads should be used
if the goal is strength or power, moderate loads for
hypertrophy, and light loads for muscular endurance (as
indicated by the larger font sizes). To state this another
way, low-multiple RMs appear to have the greatest effect
on strength and maximum power training, and high-multiple
RMs seem to result in better muscular endurance
improvements (1, 20, 63, 90). The continuum concept
effectively illustrates that a certain RM emphasizes a
specific outcome, but the training benefits are blended
at any given RM.
Percentage of the 1RM
Despite the physiological blend of training effects, the
specificity principle still dictates the dominant outcome
that is attained and enhanced with a particular training
load. The relationship between the percentage of the
1RM and the estimated number of repetitions that can
be performed at that load (table 17.7) allows the strength
and conditioning professional to assign a specific resistance
to be used for an exercise in a training session.
In other words, the training goal is attained when the
athlete lifts a load of a certain percentage of the 1RM
for a specific number of repetitions (table 17.9).
How to Calculate a Training Load For example,
suppose an athlete’s training goal is muscular strength
and the tested 1RM in the bench press exercise is 220
pounds (100 kg). To increase strength, the athlete
needs to handle loads of at least 85% of the 1RM (after
repetitions per set (table 17.9). More specifically, if the
strength and conditioning professional assigns four repetitions
per set for this exercise, the corresponding load
will be approximately 90% of the 1RM (table 17.7), or
approximately 200 pounds (90 kg). Note that the strength
and conditioning professional should make adjustments
to assigned loads based on observation of the ease or
difficulty an athlete experiences in lifting the load for
the required repetitions.
Assigning Percentages for Power Training The
force–velocity curve illustrates that the greater the
amount of concentric muscular force generated, the
slower the muscle shortening and corresponding
movement velocity (and vice versa). Maximal power,
in contrast, is produced at intermediate velocities with
the lifting of light to moderate, not maximal, loads (11,
12, 57, 61, 67, 68). Performing a 1RM involves slower
movement velocities; maximum force is generated, but
with reduced power output (20, 21, 100). Seldom is an
athlete required to demonstrate a singular, maximal,
slow-speed muscular strength effort in a sport (except in
powerlifting, for example). Most sport movements are
faster (66) and involve higher power outputs (41) than
those produced during a 1RM test. This does not mean
that an athlete’s power capabilities are unaffected by
maximal muscular strength training, however. Because
speed- or power-related sport movements often begin
from zero or near-zero velocities, slow-velocity strength
gains have direct application to power production (20).
For these reasons, the load and repetition assignments
for power training overlap the guidelines for strength
training (table 17.9).
Non-weightlifting multijoint power exercise (jump
squat, bench press throw, overhead press throw) and
single-joint muscle action data reveal that peak power is
generally reached with the lifting of very light loads —
from body weight (0%) to 30% of the 1RM (11, 12, 21,
57, 61, 68). With such a light weight, however, these
exercises are difficult to execute properly with typical
resistance training equipment because the athlete cannot
sufficiently overload the muscles without needing to
decelerate at the end of the exercise range of motion.
Performing some of these exercises (bench press throw,
overhead press throw) in a Smith machine, for example,
can help to address the safety issues. The jump squat is
one exception and is best performed in a power rack
(11, 12, 57, 59, 61, 68). On the other end of the load
continuum, data from multiple national- and world-level
weightlifting and powerlifting championships clearly
indicate that power output increases as the weight lifted
decreases from 100% of the 1RM (i.e., the 1RM) to 90%
of the 1RM (21, 22, 81). In fact, for the back squat and
deadlift exercises, power output for a load at 90% of the
1RM may be twice as high as with the 1RM load due
to a large decrease in the time required to complete the
exercise with the lighter load (22). Even for the already
“fast” power exercises (weightlifting-based movements),
there is still a 5% to 10% increase in power output as the
load decreases from the 1RM to 90% of the 1RM (22).
Considering these issues, the most effective and practical
application is to assign loads that are about 75% to 90%
of the 1RM for resistance training exercises that can be
heavily loaded such as the snatch and clean and other
weightlifting-derived movements (11, 21, 45, 57, 61).
To promote program specificity, particular load and
repetition assignments are indicated for athletes training
for single-effort power events (e.g., shot put, high jump,
weightlifting) and for multiple-effort power events (e.g.,
basketball, volleyball). For example, single-effort event
athletes may be assigned sets of one or two repetitions
using loads that equal 80% to 90% of the 1RM, especially
on heavy training days. For sports with multiple
maximum-power efforts (e.g., the frequent maximum
vertical jumping motions of a volleyball blocker), three
to five repetitions per set with loads at 75% to 85% of
the 1RM may be most appropriate (8, 11).
On the basis of the %1RM–repetition relationships
shown in table 17.7, the strength and conditioning professional
may question the load assignments for power
training in table 17.9. The %1RM loads may appear to
be too low compared to the goal number of repetitions.
For example, according to table 17.7, three to five repetitions
are typically associated with loads 93% to 87%
of the 1RM, not 75% to 85% of the 1RM or less as table
17.9 indicates. Power exercises cannot be maximally
loaded at any repetition scheme, because the quality of
the movement technique will decline before momentary
muscle fatigue defines a true multiple-RM set (20).
Therefore, lighter loads allow the athlete to complete
repetitions with maximum speed to promote maximum
power development. For example, power exercises are
usually limited to five repetitions per set, but with loads
up to and equal to a 10RM (i.e., approximately 75% of
the 1RM) (45). This load adjustment to promote peak
power output also applies to the RM continuum (figure
17.3). Power training can be emphasized across the
range of five repetitions or fewer, but the strength and
conditioning professional should realize that these loads
are not true repetition maximums.
Variation of the Training Load
Training for muscular strength and power places a high
physiological stress on an athlete’s body. Intermediate
and advanced resistance-trained athletes are accustomed
to lifting heavy loads and possess the experience and
motivation to exert to near failure on every set, but this
should not always be the goal. Despite the high training
status, this degree of training demand typically cannot
be tolerated very long without contributing to an overtrained
state. For example, an athlete may resistance train
three days a week with muscular strength as the goal
(e.g., Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays). It would be
difficult for the athlete to perform the same high-load,
low-volume regimen — especially in the power and
other core exercises — with only one or two days of rest
between sessions.
One strategy to counterbalance the overtraining
associated with the heavy loads is to alter the loads
(%1RMs) for the power and other core exercises so
that only one training day each week (e.g., Monday) is
a heavy day. These “heavy day” loads are designed to
be full repetition maximums, the greatest resistance that
can be successfully lifted for the goal number of repetitions.
The loads for the other training days are reduced
(intentionally) to provide recovery after the heavy day
while still maintaining sufficient training frequency and
volume. In the example of the three-days-a-week program,
Wednesdays and Fridays are “light” and “medium”
training days (respectively). For the light day, calculate
80% of the loads lifted in the power and other core exercises
on the heavy day (Monday) and instruct the athlete
to complete the same number of goal repetitions. Even
if the athlete is able to perform more repetitions than
the designated goal number, he or she should not do so.
Similarly, calculate 90% of the loads lifted in the power
and other core exercises from Monday’s training session
for the “medium” day, and instruct the athlete to perform
only the assigned number of goal repetitions (2, 8, 86).
This approach can be used for any training frequency.
For instance, a two-days-a-week program could have a
heavy day and a light day, or an upper body–lower body
split routine could consist of two heavy days (one upper
body day and one lower body day) followed by two light
days. Varying the training loads also works well with an
athlete’s other training, in that heavy lifting days can
fall on light sport conditioning days, and light lifting
days on heavy sport conditioning days (8). The strength
and conditioning professional needs to monitor this
schedule so that it does not lead to heavy training every
day (86).
Progression of the Training Load
As the athlete adapts to the training stimulus, the strength
and conditioning professional needs to have a strategy
for advancing exercise loads so that improvements
will continue over time (progression). Monitoring each
athlete’s training and charting his or her response to the
prescribed workouts enable the strength and conditioning
professional to know when and to what extent the loads
should be increased.
Timing Load Increases
A conservative method that can be used to increase an
athlete’s training loads is called the 2-for-2 rule (2). If
the athlete can perform two or more repetitions over his
or her assigned repetition goal for a given exercise in
the last set in two consecutive workouts, weight should
be added to that exercise for the next training session.
For example, a strength and conditioning professional
assigns three sets of 10 repetitions in the bench press
exercise, and the athlete performs all 10 repetitions in all
sets. After several workout sessions (the specific number
depends on many factors), the athlete is able to complete
12 repetitions in the third (last) set for two consecutive
workouts. In the following training session, the load for
that exercise should be increased.
Quantity of Load Increases
The decision as to the size of the load increase can be
difficult to make, but table 17.10 provides general recommendations
based on the athlete’s condition (stronger
or weaker) and body area (upper or lower body). Despite
these guidelines, the significant variation in training
status, volume-loads, and exercises (type and muscular
involvement) greatly influences the appropriate load
increases. To contend with this variability, relative load
increases of 2.5% to 10% can be used instead of the
absolute values shown in table 17.10.
Step 6: Volume
Volume relates to the total amount of weight lifted in
a training session (20, 58, 69), and a set is a group of
repetitions sequentially performed before the athlete
stops to rest (20). Repetition-volume is the total number
of repetitions performed during a workout session (4,
20, 75, 86), and volume-load is the total number of sets
multiplied by the number of repetitions per set, then
multiplied by the weight lifted per repetition. For example,
the volume-load for two sets of 10 repetitions with
50 pounds (23 kg) would be expressed as 2 ? 10 ? 50
pounds or 1,000 pounds (454 kg). (If different sets are
performed with different amounts of weight, the volumes
per set are calculated and then added to obtain the total
training session volume.)
In the example just given (a volume-load of 1,000
pounds), multiplying each repetition by the additional
factor of vertical displacement of the weight during that
repetition would yield the concentric work performed.
The displacement factor is fairly constant for a given
athlete, so it is not used, but the resulting volume-load is
still directly proportional to concentric work. As previously
stated, volume-load divided by repetition-volume
results in the average weight lifted per repetition, which
is related to intensity or the quality of work. In running
exercise, the common (rep) volume measure is distance.
If an intensity value is known or measured (such as
running pace, which relates to percent V
.
O2max), then
total metabolic energy cost (which is proportional to
mechanical work done) can be calculated. This value
is comparable to volume-load in resistance exercise.
The same concepts are applicable to the number of foot
or hand contacts (volume) in plyometric exercise, the
number of strokes (volume) in swimming or rowing,
or the number of throws or jumps (volume) for various
sport activities.
Multiple Versus Single Sets
Some have advocated that one set of 8 to 12 repetitions
(after warm-up) performed to volitional muscular failure
is sufficient to maximize gains in muscular strength and
hypertrophy. Additionally, others have reported increases
in maximum strength after the performance of only one
set per exercise per session (24, 52, 53).
Single-set training may be appropriate for untrained
individuals (20) or during the first several months of
training (24), but many studies indicate that higher
volumes are necessary to promote further gains in
strength, especially for intermediate and advanced
resistance-trained athletes (44, 64, 89, 99). Further, the
musculoskeletal system will eventually adapt to the
stimulus of one set to failure and require the added stimulus
of multiple sets for continued strength gains (20).
Moreover, performing three sets of 10 repetitions without
going to failure enhances strength better than one set to
failure in 8 to 12 repetitions (46, 48), although the higher
training volume with use of three sets is a contributing
factor (4, 20, 86). Therefore, an athlete who performs
multiple sets from the initiation of his or her resistance
training program will increase muscular strength faster
than with single-set training (48, 63). The strength and
conditioning professional cannot expect, however, that
an athlete will be able to successfully complete multiple
sets with full RM loads at fixed repetition schemes for
every exercise in each training session. Fatigue will
affect the number of repetitions that can be performed
in later sets.
Training Status
The training status of athletes affects the volume they
will be able to safely tolerate. It is appropriate for an
athlete to perform only one or two sets as a beginner and
to add sets as he or she becomes better trained. As the
athlete adapts to a consistent and well-designed program,
more sets can gradually be added to match the guidelines
associated with the given training goal.
Primary Resistance Training Goal
Training volume is directly based on the athlete’s resistance
training goal. Table 17.11 provides a summary
of the guidelines for the number of repetitions and sets
commonly associated with strength, power, hypertrophy,
and muscular endurance training programs.
Strength and Power
In classic research, DeLorme (14) and DeLorme and
Watkins (15) recommended sets of 10 repetitions as
ideal to increase muscular strength, although the regimen
was originally developed for injury rehabilitation.
Later, Berger (6, 7) determined that three sets of six
repetitions created maximal strength gains, at least in
the bench press and back squat exercises. Although
Berger’s work seemed to be conclusive, his subsequent
research (5) showed no significant difference among six
sets of a 2RM load, three sets of a 6RM load, and three
sets of a 10RM load, despite the differences in volume.
Since then, many other studies have also been unable to
support an exact set and repetition scheme to promote
maximal increases in strength (17, 24, 25, 70, 80, 85). An
important qualifier regarding these inconclusive reports
is that most involved relatively untrained subjects, thus
implying that nearly any type of program will cause
improvements in strength for these individuals.
When training an athlete for strength, assigning
volume begins with an examination of the optimal
number of repetitions for maximal strength gains. As
discussed earlier (and shown in figure 17.3 and table
17.9), this appears to be sets of six or fewer repetitions
(at the corresponding RM load) for core exercises (20,
32, 33, 45, 86, 87, 91, 92). Comprehensive reviews of
the literature by Fleck and Kraemer (20) and Tan (90)
conclude that a range of two to five sets or three to six
sets (respectively) promotes the greatest increases in
strength. Specific set guidelines based on exercise type
suggest that only one to three sets may be appropriate
or necessary for assistance exercises (2, 45).
Volume assignments for power training are typically
lower than those for strength training in order to maximize
the quality of exercise. This reduction in volume
results from fewer goal repetitions and lighter loads
(figure 17.3 and table 17.9) rather than the recommended
number of sets (11, 12, 45, 57, 61, 68). The common
guideline is three to five sets (after warm-up) for power
exercises included in a trained athlete’s program (33,
86, 87).
Hypertrophy
It is generally accepted that higher training volumes
are associated with increases in muscular size (31, 63).
This is the result of both a moderate to higher number
of repetitions per set (6 to 12; see figure 17.3 and table
17.9) and the commonly recommended three to six sets
per exercise (20, 32, 33, 71, 91). Additionally, although
research studies usually focus on only one or two exercises
(total or per muscle group), empirical observations
and interviews with elite bodybuilders, as well as more
exhaustive prescriptive guidelines (20, 45), suggest that
performing three or more exercises per muscle group is
the most effective strategy for increasing muscle size
(32). The effect on training volume from these assignments
can be quite substantial.
Muscular Endurance
Resistance training programs that emphasize muscular
endurance involve performing many repetitions — 12 or
more — per set (20, 45, 87, 91, 92). Despite this relatively
high repetition assignment, the overall volume-load is
not necessarily overly inflated since the loads lifted are
lighter and fewer sets are performed, commonly two or
three per exercise (45).
Step 7: Rest Periods
The time dedicated to recovery between sets and exercises
is called the rest period or interset rest. The length
of the rest period between sets and exercises is highly
dependent on the goal of training, the relative load lifted,
and the athlete’s training status (if the athlete is not in
good physical condition, rest periods initially may need
to be longer than typically assigned).
The amount of rest between sets is strongly related
to load; the heavier the loads lifted, the longer the rest
periods the athlete will need between sets in order
to safely and successfully complete the prescribed
subsequent sets. For example, training for muscular
strength with 4RM loads requires significantly longer
rest periods between sets than training for muscular
endurance in which lighter 15RM loads are lifted (20,
74, 86). Despite the relationship between training goals
and the length of rest periods (e.g., long rest periods for
muscular strength training programs), not all exercises
in a resistance training program should be assigned the
same rest periods. It is important that the strength and
conditioning professional allocate rest periods based on
the relative load lifted and the amount of muscle mass
involved in each exercise. An example of this specificity
is for an assistance exercise as part of a muscular
strength training program. Whereas a core exercise
such as the bench press may involve a 4RM load and a
4-minute rest period, an assistance exercise such as the
lateral shoulder raise may be performed with a 12RM
load and therefore require only a 1-minute rest period
(even though 1-minute rest periods generally apply to a
hypertrophy training program). The recommended rest
period lengths for strength, power, hypertrophy, and
muscular endurance programs are shown in table 17.12.
Strength and Power
Training may enhance an athlete’s ability to exercise
with less rest (20, 86), but athletes who seek to perform
maximal or near-maximal repetitions with a heavy load
usually need long rest periods, especially for lower
body or all-body structural exercises (95). For example,
Robinson and colleagues (77) observed that, in the
back squat exercise, 3 minutes of interset rest resulted
in greater strength gains than a 30-second rest period.
Common guidelines for rest period length are at least 2
minutes (45, 82, 93) or a range of 2 to 5 minutes (47, 50)
or 3 to 5 minutes (20, 86, 96). These recovery intervals
appear to apply equally to resistance training programs
designed to improve maximal strength and those that
focus on muscular power (45).
Hypertrophy
Athletes who are interested in gaining muscular size
often use a short to moderate interset rest period (20,
45, 47, 74, 86). Some reviews of hypertrophy training
programs support a limited rest period because they
recommend that the athlete begin the next set before
full recovery has been achieved (32, 91). Despite this,
the high metabolic demand of exercises involving large
muscle groups merits consideration (i.e., extra recovery
time) when rest period lengths are being assigned (86).
Typical strategies for the length of rest periods are less
than 1.5 minutes (45) or a span of 30 seconds to 1 minute
(47, 50, 92) or 30 seconds to 1.5 minutes (32, 91).
Muscular Endurance
A muscular endurance training program has very short
rest periods, often less than 30 seconds. This restriction
of the recovery time is purposeful; only a minimal
amount of rest is allowed when light loads are being
lifted for many repetitions. This type of program is
designed to meet the guideline of the specificity principle
for muscular endurance (2). Short rest periods are characteristic
of circuit training programs (23, 29) in which
it is common to alternate exercises and limit rest period
lengths to 30 seconds or less (76, 78, 79).
Conclusion
Well-designed programs are based on the application of
sound principles during each step of a process referred to
as program design. The process begins with a needs analysis
to determine the specific demands of the sport and
the training status of the athlete. With this knowledge,
appropriate exercises are selected and training frequency
is established. The order of exercises in the workout is
considered next, followed by load assignments and training
volume choices based on desired training outcomes.
Deciding on the length of the rest periods is the last
step leading to the design of a sport-specific resistance
training program. A composite view that includes all of
the program design variables (steps 1–7) for the three
scenarios is shown in the scenario table.