Informal Fallacies and Types
Logical Fallacy:
A fallacy is a flawed reasoning that is against the logic of an argument even though it could be deceptive and might seem to support its claim. In other words , a fallacy is an error in argument.
Types of fallacies:
1. Formal Fallacies
2. Informal Fallacies
Informal fallacies:
“Informal fallacies are identified through analysis of the errors of reasoning
Some of the types of informal fallacies are given below:
1. Abusive Fallacy:
‘Ad Hominem’ or abusive fallacy is an error in argument that occurs when instead of proving stance through logic and evidence , a person attacks the other person on a personal level. This behavior exhibits feeling of disrespect and disapproval and can offend the victim.
Examples:
l A says: ‘ I think one should help poor instead of spending money on expensive cars and branded clothes. ‘
B replies: ‘You just don’t have money to buy an expensive car that’s why you are jealous of those who have it. You don’t really know how it is like to own money that took years to earn.’
l X says: ‘Women should be given equal rights as men’’
Y replies: ‘You are just one of those foolish people who think they are center of universe. People like you don’t deserve any rights’
l M says”: ‘ I think there exists an afterlife where everyone will be granted justice’’
N replies: ‘People as stupid and stereotypical as you have no intellect to begin with’’
2. Appeal to Force:
Appeal to force fallacy occurs when instead of giving evidence and showing relevance to argument the person threats the opponent either physically , emotionally legally or in some other way.
Examples:
l A says: ‘Women deserve equal rights as men’
B says: ‘If you repeat that again I’ll make you suffer and regret what you said.’
l M says: ‘Grades are not important , concepts are.’
N replies: ‘Say that again and i will not give you pocket money this month’
l X says: ‘There exist three Gods and I can prove that’
Y says: ‘Don’t you dare say such blasphemous things if you want to live in this country!’’
3. Popular Appeal:
‘Bandwagon’ or ‘Appeal to popularity ‘ fallacy occurs when we use benefit of acceptance of stance by majority population as a proof of its accuracy. Just because majority agree with a point of view doesn’t make it a fact , but people appealing to popularity ignore this fact.
Examples:
l A says: ‘God exists as most of the people in world believe in His existence’
l X says: ‘ I’m sure Y is a good politician as most people voted for him.’
l M says: ‘ Every child should work hard to become a doctor as most of the people want their children to be doctors. ‘
4. Appeal to Inappropriate Authority:
Appeal to inappropriate authority fallacy is committed when point of view of an irrelevant authority is used as proof of the stance.
Example:
l X says: ‘ Earth is flat because my mother says so.’
l A says: ‘ I don’t have infection because my teacher says I’m totally fine ‘
l M says: ‘ Philosophy is boring and useless because my school friend thinks so.’
5. Equivocation:
This type of fallacy occurs when a word or phrase with multiple meanings is used to prove an argument and causing a confusion. Ambiguity of meanings of a word is used to prove your stance in this type of fallacy.
Examples:
l A says: ‘ the wind is cool
Sarah is such a cool person
Sarah is wind’
l X says: ‘There are many stars in the sky
He is a top star.
He is in the sky ‘
l M says: ‘ Life is a race
My race is Pakistani
Life is Pakistani. ‘
6. Hasty Generalization:
This fallacy is committed when one or a negligible amount of certain cases are used to justify and prove certain phenomenon in general. It is due to jumping at conclusion after considering only a few examples. This type of fallacy is usually very biased.
Examples:
l A says: ‘ My uncle and aunt died at the age of 50.
People die at the age of 50'’
l X says: ‘My doctor wears glasses
All doctors wear glasses’’
l M says: ‘ School makes me feel depressed
Schools cause depression’
7. Circular Reasoning:
Fallacy of begging the question or circular reasoning is kind of fallacy that occurs when the reasoner resumes the conclusion of argument he wants to prove in beginning or premise itself. It ends up creating a cycle of argument proving premises by adding conclusion to premises.
Examples:
l A says: ‘Life is beautiful
So its worth living”
B asks: ‘And why is life worth living?’
A replies: ‘because it is beautiful’’
l X says: ‘We should study to be successful’
Y asks : ‘Why is that?
X says: Because success comes due to studies’’
l M says: ‘God loves every human’
N asks: ‘How do you know that?’
M says ‘Because God is loving and merciful’
8. Either-Or Fallacy:
This kind of fallacy is committed by focusing on two opposing aspects of a reasoning and neglecting all other aspects lying between. It is like characterizing an object as either black or white , ignoring all shades of grey lying between them.
Examples :
l A says: ‘ Either study hard or fail.’
l X says: ‘ Eat healthy diet or you will die’
l M says: ‘Philosophers are either very boring or very interesting.’
So these were basic types of informal fallacies, hope you guys gained anything.
Have a great day!
