If Cabernet Sauvignon is synonymous with red wine, then Chardonnay is synonymous with white wine, playing an immeasurable role in the realm of white wines. Chardonnay holds the title of the world’s most widely planted white grape variety, and its characteristics vary slightly when cultivated in different countries. Chardonnay wines produced in cooler regions often exhibit flavors of apple and pear, while those from warmer regions carry notes of citrus and melon. In hotter climates, the wines showcase tropical fruit flavors like pineapple and mango. Therefore, Chardonnay is also referred to as the “Queen of Variability.”
Origin and Development of Chardonnay
The earliest recorded history of Chardonnay dates back to around 1685–1690 when high-quality Chardonnay wines were produced in the village of Saint-Sorlin (now La Roche-Vineuse in the Burgundy region). This suggests that Chardonnay might have originated in the Burgundy region. Before the 20th century, Chardonnay had different names in various literature, such as Chardenet, Chardonnet, and Chardenay. Its cultivation area and attention were not significant until the 20th century when it became the most widely planted white grape variety globally.
By the late 1980s, enthusiasm for Chardonnay had reached its peak, leading to widespread planting. However, by the late 1990s, an oversupply of Chardonnay emerged worldwide. As a result, many vineyards started replacing Chardonnay with other white grape varieties like Sauvignon Blanc, causing a temporary shortage of Chardonnay wine. Nowadays, Chardonnay cultivation has reached a more stable state, with a relatively balanced supply and demand.
In 1999, DNA testing revealed that Chardonnay is a hybrid of Pinot and Gouais Blanc, with genetic connections to Gamay Noir, Melon de Bourgogne, and Aligote, explaining why Chardonnay is often confused with Gamay Noir and Aligote.
Chardonnay also frequently serves as the parent for other varieties. For instance, in France, it crosses with Baroque to create Liliorila, with Seibel to yield Ravat Blanc, and with Palomino Fino to produce Chasan. In Switzerland, Chardonnay crosses with Chasselas to create Charmont and Doral.
Characteristics of Chardonnay Grapes and Wines
Chardonnay is highly adaptable and easy to cultivate, thriving in moderately dry limestone or calcareous soils. It flowers and ripens early, making it susceptible to frost damage in cooler regions like Chablis, Champagne, and the Casablanca Valley, affecting grape quality and yield. Chardonnay is known for its high yields, which can reach over ten thousand liters per hectare. However, in quality-focused regions like Burgundy, growers often limit yields to around 3,000 liters per hectare or even lower to ensure quality. Chardonnay has 28 clones in Burgundy, with clones 75, 78, 121, 124, 125, and 277 being high-yielding, while clones 76, 95, and 96 produce the highest-quality wines. With thin skins, Chardonnay grapes are occasionally susceptible to noble rot, resulting in the production of sweet white wines.
Chardonnay itself does not have fixed aroma characteristics. It exhibits different aroma profiles depending on the growing environment. In cool regions, it presents apple and pear aromas, while warmer areas offer citrus and melon notes. In hotter climates, it showcases tropical fruit aromas such as pineapple and mango. Chardonnay pairs well with various winemaking techniques, including malolactic fermentation, lees aging, and oak barrel aging. In Australia and New Zealand, Chardonnay often undergoes malolactic fermentation, resulting in smooth and delicate wines. In the Champagne region of France, it is often aged on lees to create uniquely flavored Champagne. In Burgundy, the United States, and some other Old World countries, Chardonnay is crafted into wines with intense aromas, full-bodied structure, and complexity.
Generally, Chardonnay wines are meant to be consumed while young and are not suitable for long aging. Only a few Chardonnay wines that have undergone oak barrel aging can age for around ten years.
Types of Chardonnay Wines
Chardonnay is highly adaptable and can produce wines in various styles.
Unoaked Dry Whites: These wines are typically matured in stainless steel tanks, displaying lively floral and fruity aromas. They have a delicate and soft body, refreshing acidity, and crispness, sharing some similarities with Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Gris wines.
Oaked Dry Whites: Oak barrel aging imparts flavors of butter, cream, toasted bread, and nuts to Chardonnay wines. These wines often have a golden color, a fuller and richer mouthfeel, complex layers, and a lingering finish.
Sparkling Wines: Notable sparkling wines like Champagne and Franciacorta are produced from Chardonnay grapes. These wines boast high quality, uniform and persistent bubbles, balanced mouthfeel, and complex layers.
Sweet White Wines: Due to its thin skins, Chardonnay is susceptible to noble rot, allowing the production of sweet white wines. These wines have pronounced floral and fruity aromas, a sweet and charming palate, but their quality and aging potential are not as high as sweet wines produced from Semillon and Sauvignon Blanc.
Chardonnay: Wine Regions
Chardonnay exhibits strong adaptability and performs admirably in countries such as France, Italy, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Chile.
1. France
The cultivation of Chardonnay in France has continually expanded, growing from 7,300 hectares in 1958 to 44,600 hectares in 2009. Today, Chardonnay ranks as the second-largest grape variety in France, following Ugni Blanc in the Cognac and Armagnac regions. Chardonnay is primarily planted in Burgundy, Champagne, and Languedoc-Roussillon.
Burgundy: Chardonnay covers an area of 14,700 hectares in Burgundy, with 5,600 hectares in Chablis, 6,900 hectares in the Chalonnaise and Maconnais regions, and around 2,200 hectares in Cote d’Or.
Chablis: Located at the northernmost tip of Burgundy, Chablis has a colder climate. Chablis Chardonnay wines are known for their high acidity, crispness, and notes of citrus, green apple, and unripe pear. They may also carry hints of yogurt, white flowers, oyster-like flavors, and a hint of seawater. Chablis Chardonnay wines are typically unoaked, with the best examples displaying lively acidity, delicate and refined body, and the ability to age for decades in the bottle.
Prominent Wineries: Domaine Laroche, Domaine Fourrey, Domaine William Fevre, Jean-Paul Benoit Droin
Cote d’Or: Cote d’Or is home to renowned and expensive vineyards. It produces exceptional white wines alongside its renowned reds. Notable appellations include Corton-Chassagne, Meursault, Puligny-Montrachet, and Chassagne-Montrachet. Chardonnay wines from Cote d’Or are usually oak-aged and are the fullest in style among French Chardonnays. They feature aromas of cinnamon, toasted almonds, toasted bread, white mushrooms, truffle, and apple. These wines offer a rich, complex palate, balanced structure, silkiness, and a persistent aromatic finish. They are among the most intricate and elegantly balanced Chardonnays in the world.
Prominent Wineries: La Romanee-Conti, Domaine Jomain, Domaine des Comtes Lafon, Domaine Coche-Dury, Domain Buisson Charles
La Romanee-Conti’s Montrachet white wine, in particular, boasts a rich, powerful aroma, strong character, versatility, and remarkable aging potential, earning it the title of “King of the World’s Dry White Wines.”
Chalonnaise: Situated in the southern part of Burgundy, Chalonnaise enjoys a warmer climate. Chardonnay wines from this region often undergo oak aging, resulting in juicy and plump wines. Notable appellations include Rully, Mercurey, and Montagny. Chalonnaise Chardonnay wines feature flavors of yellow apple and citrus, offering a fuller and more delicate palate with diverse layers. However, they lack the refinement and balance of Cote d’Or wines, and their prices vary significantly.
Maconnais: Located in the southern part of Burgundy, adjacent to Beaujolais, Maconnais Chardonnay wines are typically unoaked and exhibit flavors of tropical mango and pineapple. These wines are lighter in body, delivering a straightforward, natural flavor profile. A small portion of oak-aged Maconnais wines feature nutty, creamy, and toasted spice aromas, showcasing a complex palate and a relatively higher price range.
Champagne: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Pinot Meunier are the three major grape varieties used in Champagne production. Chardonnay, known as the “white grape of white Champagne,” contributes high acidity, structural backbone, and distinctive floral and citrus aromas to Champagne wines.
Champagne is produced using the traditional method, boasting delicate and persistent bubbles, a unique aromatic profile, and a noble and elegant character. Chardonnay-based Champagnes often carry lemon notes, which evolve into flavors like cream and biscuits as they age on lees in the bottle.
Prominent Wineries: Salon, Dom Perignon, Krug, Perrier-Jouet, Louis Roederer, Bollinger, Veuve Clicquot
Languedoc-Roussillon: Chardonnay covers 12,000 hectares in Languedoc-Roussillon, making it the most widely planted white grape variety in the region. Wines produced here are often higher in quantity but may vary in quality, frequently serving as table wines. The region also produces a limited number of premium Chardonnay wines, often oak-aged. Languedoc-Roussillon also produces Chardonnay-based sparkling wines, such as Limoux.
Other Regions: Chardonnay is also planted to a lesser extent in the Cognac and Armagnac regions, mainly for table wines. In the Loire Valley, Chardonnay is crafted into both lively and refreshing light-bodied dry whites, as well as Crement de Loire sparkling wines.
2. Italy
In the past, Italians often confused Pinot Bianco with Chardonnay, but it wasn’t until the late 20th century that they were fully differentiated. Chardonnay covers an area of around 11,800 hectares in Italy. Ambitious winemakers in regions like Piedmont and Tuscany began producing limited quantities of expensive, oak-aged Chardonnay wines.
Most Chardonnay in Italy is concentrated in Lombardy, Trentino, Friuli, and Alto Adige. In Lombardy, Chardonnay is used to produce the renowned Franciacorta sparkling wine. Trentino and Friuli also create delicate Chardonnay wines, often as sparkling wines with finer, longer-lasting bubbles. In southern Italian regions like Sicily, the quality of Chardonnay wines is more ordinary and similar in style to Languedoc-Roussillon.
Prominent Wineries: Gaja, Querciabella, Antinori, among which Gaja’s Gaia & Rey from Langhe is considered Italy’s finest Chardonnay wine.
3. Spain
Chardonnay occupies approximately 5,400 hectares in Spain. The hot climate here imparts rich fruit aromas to Chardonnay wines, resulting in a full-bodied, robust character, albeit with slightly less complexity. Some cooler regions like Conca de Barbera and Navarra produce more refined Chardonnay wines.
4. Portugal
Chardonnay’s cultivation area in Portugal is limited, with around 560 hectares. The produced wines are generally of ordinary quality and often used as table wines.
5. Germany
Chardonnay covers around 1,170 hectares in Germany, primarily in the Pfalz and Rheinhessen regions, with a smaller presence in Baden. Chardonnay’s status in Germany is not as significant as Riesling, and only a few producers craft full-bodied, rich, and excellent-quality Chardonnay wines.
Prominent Wineries: Weingut Knipser and Okonomierat Rebholz in Pfalz; Dr Heger and Weingut Bernhard Huber in Baden; Weingut Rudolf Furst in Franken.
6. Austria
Chardonnay’s cultivation area in Austria is modest, around 270 hectares, mainly concentrated in the southern region of Steiermark. Chardonnay is referred to as Morillon in Austria, and due to its thin skins, it is prone to noble rot, resulting in the production of Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA) dessert wines. Austrian Chardonnay showcases diverse styles, including rich and oak-matured wines, as well as lean and aromatic ones.
Prominent Wineries: Weingut Kracher, Neumeister, Tinnacher, Erich & Walter Polz
7. Switzerland
Chardonnay covers approximately 320 hectares in Switzerland, resulting in a variety of styles, primarily dry white wines.
Prominent Wineries: Weingut Davaz, Domaine des Balisiers, Domaine La Colombe
8. Hungary
Chardonnay occupies around 2,860 hectares in Hungary, primarily in Matra, Etyek-Buda, Nezmely, and Lake Balaton regions. Top-tier Hungarian Chardonnay wines are often fermented and aged in oak barrels, showcasing intense aromas and a full-bodied, rich texture.
Prominent Wineries: Hilltop, Otto Legli, Jozsef Bock
9. Other European Countries
Moldova: Chardonnay is a significant grape variety in Moldova, covering around 5,100 hectares, although its export is limited.
Bulgaria: Chardonnay occupies around 4,600 hectares in Bulgaria, and the wines are often oak-aged.
Romania: Chardonnay covers about 700 hectares in Romania, primarily in the Constanta region along the Black Sea coast.
Slovenia: Chardonnay covers about 1,200 hectares in Slovenia, producing high-quality wines similar in style to Burgundy.
Croatia: Chardonnay occupies about 910 hectares in Croatia, often blended with other varieties like Malvazija Istarska and Pinot Noir to produce sparkling wines.
Czech Republic: Chardonnay occupies around 760 hectares in the Morava region of the Czech Republic.
Ukraine: Chardonnay is an important white grape variety in Ukraine, covering around 3,000 hectares.
Greece: Chardonnay covers around 140 hectares in Greece, primarily in northern regions.
10. United States
Chardonnay is cultivated in many regions across the United States, primarily in California, Oregon, Washington, and New York.
California: The Chardonnay planting area was around 94,000 hectares in 2003. With the rise of red wines, it decreased to about 91,500 hectares in 2008 and then increased again to approximately 95,300 hectares in 2010. The Central Valley of California has a warmer climate, leading to early ripening of Chardonnay grapes, resulting in wines that are often less complex, high in alcohol, and slightly sweet. In cooler regions like Sonoma and the Central Coast, Chardonnay planting continues to grow due to the production of more delicate and elegant wines preferred by consumers. Napa Valley’s hot climate makes it challenging to produce exceptional Chardonnay. Chardonnay from Carneros is often used to make sparkling wines. The Russian River Valley also has a warm climate and struggles to produce high-quality Chardonnay. Monterey County produces some finer quality Chardonnay wines.
Prominent Wineries: Wente Vineyards, Chateau Montelena Winery, Au Bon Climat, Chalone Vineyard, Dumol, Dutton Goldfield, Kistler Vineyards, Kongsgaard
Oregon: Chardonnay covers around 400 hectares in Oregon. Due to the colder climate, Chardonnay wines from this region usually don’t match the excellence of Pinot Gris. However, many Oregon winemakers have imported Chardonnay clones from Burgundy, such as Dijon 95 and 96. These clones develop rich flavors even in less mature conditions. As a result, Chardonnay wines from Oregon are typically of high quality, offering pronounced stone fruit aromas, delicate textures, and rounded fullness.
Prominent Wineries: Bergstrom Vineyard, Chehalem, Domaine Drouhin, Eyrie Vineyards, Ponzi Vineyards
Washington: Chardonnay is the largest planted white grape variety in Washington, covering around 3,100 hectares. The state also produces lively acidity and delicately refined Chardonnay wines.
Prominent Wineries: Abeja, Arbor Crest, Chateau Ste Michelle
Additionally, in Texas, Chardonnay covers around 150 hectares; in Virginia, it’s around 190 hectares; in New York, it’s around 400 hectares, mainly concentrated in areas like Long Island and Finger Lakes. Chardonnay from Long Island tends to be fuller and more robust than those from Finger Lakes.
11. Argentina
Chardonnay covers approximately 6,300 hectares in Argentina, mainly concentrated in the Mendoza region, with smaller plantings in San Juan, La Rioja, and Neuquen. Chardonnay is Argentina’s second-largest white grape variety after Torrontes. The high altitude in Argentina contributes to its Chardonnay wines, which exhibit remarkable finesse and rich fruit aromas.
Prominent Wineries: Bodega Catena Zapata, Vina Cobos
12. Chile
Chardonnay covers around 8,500 hectares in Chile, making it the most widely planted white grape variety in the country. It’s primarily grown in cool regions like Casablanca, Maule Valley, Curico Valley, and Colchagua Valley. While the early 21st century saw many Chardonnay wines from Chile lacking distinction, the quality has significantly improved with more focus on delicate and refined styles.
Prominent Wineries: Amayna, Haras De Pirque, Vina Errazuriz
13. Australia
Chardonnay is the largest planted white grape variety in Australia, covering around 31,500 hectares. Despite its relatively short history, Chardonnay has become a significant player in Australia’s wine scene. Initially, Australian Chardonnay was heavily oak-aged, masking the grape’s true character. However, winemakers shifted towards crafting elegant and refined Chardonnay wines with great finesse.
Chardonnay’s footprint spans across Australia, with various styles. The most refined, complex, and age-worthy Chardonnays come from cool regions in Western Australia, Adelaide Hills, Tasmania, and parts of New South Wales.
Prominent Wineries: Cullen, Leeuwin Estate, Moss Wood, Shaw and Smith
14. New Zealand
Chardonnay covers around 3,770 hectares in New Zealand, making it the second-largest white grape variety after Sauvignon Blanc. New Zealand’s Chardonnay wines are known for their high acidity, refreshing crispness, and exceptional quality. The Gisborne region is particularly famous for its Chardonnay production. Top-tier New Zealand Chardonnays are lively and full-bodied, often rivaling the finest Burgundy Chardonnays.
Prominent Wineries: Kumeu River, Dry River, Ata Rangi, Craggy Range, Sacred Hill, and St Clair.
15. South Africa
Chardonnay covers around 8,200 hectares in South Africa, accounting for 15% of the total white grape plantings. It is mainly found in regions like Robertson, Paarl, Stellenbosch, and Breedekloof. The influence of the cold Antarctic climate leads to fresh, zesty Chardonnay wines with good aging potential.
Prominent Wineries: Chamonix, Boschendal, Jordan, Rustenberg, Sterhuis
Chardonnay Wine Pairing
Unoaked Dry White: Often accompanied by lively floral and fruity aromas, with a delicate and gentle body, and a crisp and refreshing taste. This type of Chardonnay pairs well with seafood such as scallops, lobster, and salmon, especially with Chablis wine, which is a perfect match for oysters. Recommended serving temperature: 8–10°C.
Oak-Aged Dry White: With flavors of butter, cream, toasted bread, and nuts, and a full and rich mouthfeel. This Chardonnay is suitable for pairing with white meat dishes like chicken and fish. Recommended serving temperature: 10–12°C.
Sparkling Wine: The “all-rounder” for pairing with a variety of dishes, it can go well with both light and rich dishes, even with dishes containing rich sauces. It’s also a great match for hotpot and other delicacies. Recommended serving temperature: 6–8°C.
Sweet White Wine: This type of Chardonnay can be paired with desserts like cheese and mousse cakes. Recommended serving temperature: 6–8°C.