Allahabad in Prehistoric Times
Stone Age cultures of Belan Valley (From 2 Million Years Ago to 3500 BC).
In the previous article, we saw that around 2 million years ago, our ancestors, Homo erectus, originated in Africa and later spread to India and the entire Asian continent. Most of the cultures during the Palaeolithic period which flourished in various parts of India were associated with Homo erectus. Palaeolithic period is the first and the longest phase of the Stone age. During the final two phases of the Stone age - the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods - modern humans (Homo sapiens) had arrived in India. In this chapter, we will learn about the Stone age cultures of our ancestors, which developed on the land of Allahabad.
The physical landscape around Allahabad is adorned with two distinct geological structures - on one side, there is the fertile floodplain of the Ganges, and on the other side, the rugged Vindhya Mountains. This region, situated within the boundaries of southern Uttar Pradesh, holds great historical significance in relation to the Stone age remains. The Tons River, which flows through the Meja and Karachhana tehsils of Allahabad and joins the Ganges River near the ancient village of Panasa, originates from the Tamsa Kund, a pristine reservoir situated in the Satna district of Madhya Pradesh. The Belan River, a tributary of the Tons, flows within the territory of Uttar Pradesh from the Sonbhadra district and meets the Tons River near the town of Chaakghaat in the Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh.
In the valley of the Belan River, we find the uninterrupted sequence of various cultures dating back to hundreds of thousands of years, from the Paleolithic age to Neolithic age. Historically, this is a unique occurrence because there is no other Stone age culture in the world where cultures of all three stages of Stone age (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) consecutively and without any interruption flourished in one place. The constant development of this Stone age culture in the Belan Valley might be attributed to the favorable climatic and geographical conditions of the region. On one hand, where the Vindhya-Kaimur mountain range provided an abundance of stones required to craft stone-based tools, the flat and fertile plains of the Ganges offered agriculturally viable land, lush forests with various fruits and flowers, and a diverse range of small animals for hunting.
For centuries, these Stone age cultures remained in obscurity. Then, one day, a great scholar from Allahabad University decided to unveil the veil of anonymity. This scholar was none other than Prof. Govardhan Rai Sharma. He was born on August 13, 1919, in a rural family in the Ghazipur district of eastern Uttar Pradesh. After completing his primary education in the village school, he moved to Allahabad, where he pursued all his schooling and university education.
G.R. Sharma was a brilliant student, and he excelled in the M.A. history exam in 1942, securing the first position in merit. During those days, it was customary for students who performed exceptionally well to enter the civil services. However, G.R. Sharma, who was actively involved in the Quit India Movement and was a staunch nationalist, chose to forego the idea of working under a foreign government. Instead, he opted for a career in education and in 1944, became a lecturer in history at the prestigious Oxford of the East, Allahabad University. Subsequently, he was appointed as a professor in 1958 at the same university. Unfortunately, he passed away in 1986.
Prof. Sharma, like those of Dr. Beni Prasad, Dr. Ishwari Prasad, and Dr. Tara Chand, was part of that great tradition of history teachers at Allahabad University, whose contributions to Indian history research and writing are immeasurable. It’s a privilege that very few universities will attain, to have a distinct school of history under their name - the Allahabad School of History. Not only the Stone Age civilization of the Belan Valley but also the history of Kaushambi and Vatsa Mahajanapada would remain incomplete without the contributions of Prof. Sharma. He was a great archaeologist. Prof. Sharma should not only be a matter of pride for the Allahabad University family and the entire sacred region of Prayagraj but also for all the national and international scholars whose interest lies in those periods of history that we term prehistoric, proto-historic, and Vedic period.
Anyway, we were discussing the Belan Valley. This valley is abundant with Stone age prehistoric sites. Two of these sites, Chopanimando and Koladihwa, have been excavated extensively by archaeologists. The first site is renowned for its pottery-making skills, while the second is known for its rice cultivation, recognized worldwide. Both of these sites are located on the banks of the Belan River, to the north of the Vindhya mountain range in southeastern Allahabad. Professor Sharma and his colleagues at Allahabad University meticulously studied the deposits of gravel, sand, clay, and soil along the banks of this river and its tributaries, especially the Seoti river. The cliff-section Professor Sharma studied is over 18 meters thick. He divided this cliff-section into 16 layers. Each layer was constructed from different materials, and Professor Sharma described which stone tools were found in which layer.
The excavation site comprises several layers: the 16th layer is bedrock made of sandstone, beneath which Professor Sharma did not dig; the 15th layer is a pre-human laterite surface, devoid of tools; and the 14th layer is cemented gravel with large boulders, containing the oldest Lower Paleolithic tools. Lower Paleolithic humans, who lived between 2 million and 100,000 years ago, were nomadic hunter-gatherers relying on primitive stone tools for survival amidst a challenging environment characterized by predators, changing climates, and the quest for shelter. They lived in small, mobile groups with rudimentary communication and likely discovered fire for warmth, protection, and cooking. This era marked continuous adaptation in the journey towards modern societies.
The 13th layer is composed of mottled clay, and no tools were found in this layer. It’s worth noting that when soil remains underwater for a long time, it can develop colored patches. There are two main processes involved: "gleying," where the soil becomes uniformly colored, and "mottling," where various patches of different colors appear. Gleying happens when there’s no air exchange due to prolonged waterlogging, while mottling occurs when there’s occasional air exchange during waterlogging events. This suggests that the 13th layer was likely formed in a waterlogged environment, which might explain why no tools were discovered in this layer.
In the 12th layer, besides the Middle Palaeolithic clay tools made from quartzite, we have also obtained tools from the Lower Palaeolithic period. This indicates that there was a cultural transition in this layer, where the Lower Palaeolithic culture transitioned into the Middle Palaeolithic culture.
In layers 11 and 10, Middle Palaeolithic tools have been found. The difference is that in layer 10, 80% of the tools are made from chert stone and 20% from quartzite, whereas in layer 11, 43% of the tools are made from chert stone and 57% from quartzite.
The 9th layer is made of red-colored sand. the 8th layer is made of sand, gravel, and cemented sheets. 7th layer is made of red-colored sand, while the 6th layer of this excavation site is made of pebbles. In these four layers (9th, 8th, 7th, and 6th), the same type of tools have been found, which indicate the presence of a Middle Palaeolithic culture. These tools are usually made from chert stone. The Middle Palaeolithic era was primarily associated with the early human species, Homo erectus, whose remains are often found in caves (it’s worth noting that in India, human fossils from this era have not been found). Homo erectus was the species that first learned to use fire, a pivotal moment in the story of human development. Archaeologists, around 80 kilometers from Prayagraj, in the Belan River Valley, have discovered evidence of controlled use of fire in India that astonishingly dates back 50,000 years, significantly pushing back the known date of controlled use of fire in India. Prior to this discovery, the first known controlled use of fire in the Indian subcontinent was thought to be around 18,000 to 20,000 years ago, but with this find, that date has now been extended to approximately 50,000 years ago.
The fifth layer of Professor Sharma’s research site is made of yellow-colored silt, which may have been deposited from the surrounding hills. The particles of silt have a size between those of soil and sand grains. In this layer, the obtained silt is a mixture of limestone (calcium carbonate) and laterite. Laterite is a material rich in iron and aluminum, found in both soil and rock forms. It is typically associated with tropical regions, and our Allahabad is also situated in a tropical region. In tropical regions, areas near the Earth’s equator receive relatively intense and concentrated sunlight as the Earth orbits the Sun. Consequently, regions in tropical latitudes experience more intense solar heating, leading to a higher rate of evaporation and increased rainfall. The abundant water and increased solar energy help the growth of plant life, which, in turn, supports various other forms of life. This might be the reason why the first evidence of wheat cultivation is found in a culture developed around Mehargarh in Balochistan (around 7500 to 5500 BCE), while the first evidence of rice cultivation in the sub-continent comes from the Belan Valley near Allahabad in the Koladihwa culture (around 8000 to 9000 BCE). The tools found by Professor Sharma in this layer indicate that they likely belong to the Middle Palaeolithic period based on their size and characteristics.
The Middle Paleolithic era, which occurred roughly between 100,000 and 40,000 years ago, marked a significant advancement in the lifestyle of early humans. They continued to be nomadic hunter-gatherers, but their tool technology saw substantial improvements. The development of more refined stone tools, like the Mousterian tools associated with Neanderthals, allowed for better hunting and butchering of animals. Middle Paleolithic humans exhibited increased social organization, likely living in larger groups or even small communities. They adapted to diverse environments and climates, including cold periods during ice ages. Evidence suggests they were capable of symbolic thought, possibly creating art and burying their dead with rituals, indicating a level of spirituality and culture. This period saw the emergence of Homo sapiens in Africa, marking a significant step towards modern humans, with increased cognitive abilities and cultural complexity.
The fourth layer of this excavation site is composed of small stones, pebbles, and gravels that have cemented together over time. In this layer, Professor Sharma found tools that indicate the presence of a blade-based industry during the Upper Palaeolithic period, which means this culture likely thrived during that time. The Upper Palaeolithic period is associated with the development of organized settlements, often in the form of temporary camp sites. Some of these settlements featured excavated pits for storage purposes. During this period, humans engaged in cave art, engraving, and carving on bone or ivory to express their artistic consciousness. This era also saw the emergence of more complex social groups, possibly contributing to the development of distinct identities or tribalism. It was during this time that anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) likely first migrated to India from Africa. Prior to this, during the Middle and Lower Palaeolithic periods, the inhabitants of Belan valley were likely Homo erectus, not Homo sapiens.
In the third layer of this site, tools made from small stones are found, but these tools are not geometrically shaped (meaning, they are crude). These Mesolithic tools made from small stones are found along with the Upper Palaeolithic tools, indicating that the culture present in this layer transitioned from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic culture. This layer is made of black-colored humus soil. Humus is a black, organic substance that forms in soil when plant and animal materials decompose. When plants shed leaves, twigs, and other organic matter onto the ground, a heap of debris forms. Additionally, when animals die, their remains also contribute to this heap of debris. Over time, all this debris breaks down. This means that all of its most basic chemical elements decompose. Various chemicals found in this humus play a crucial role in the nutrition of organisms dependent on soil, such as plants. It’s evident from the humus in this layer that at the time this culture was developing, this area was covered with lush forests and teeming with wildlife. The Mesolithic period is generally considered a transitional phase, where humans moved away from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle towards a food-producing culture. The tools during the Mesolithic period were relatively small. During this time, humans learned to make weapons like bows and arrows. The weapons before the Mesolithic and Upper Palaeolithic periods were too heavy to effectively hunt small and agile animals, therefore, in earlier times, large animals were typically hunted for their meat and consumed over several days. However, during the Mesolithic period, humans, with their new and lighter weapons, began to hunt small animals daily, freeing themselves from the curse of consuming several days old meat. Likely, during this time, humans also started domesticating animals on a larger scale.
The second layer of Prof. Sharma’s excavation site is made from aeolian subarial deposits. In this layer, geometrically shaped small stone tools have been found, but no pottery, indicating that this culture likely developed during the early stages of the Neolithic period.
The first layer of this site is also made from aeolian subarial deposits but, in this layer, small-sized geometric stone tools have been found along with pottery. Geometric stone tools are characteristic of both the Neolithic and Mesolithic periods, but pottery, primarily, is a hallmark of the Neolithic period. During the Neolithic period, humans began to polish stone tools. Agriculture had been discovered by this time, and human dependence on domesticated animals had increased significantly. Permanent settlements in the form of villages began to emerge, and crafts like pottery and weaving had also come into existence. Neolithic humans had learned to build houses, and during this phase, humans were no longer entirely reliant on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants for their livelihoods. Instead, additional agricultural production had made humans' lives more comfortable. With the surplus production of food, humans began to have free time for the first time in their lives. When some members of society were freed from the necessity of gathering food, the result was the emergence of new professions such as craftsmanship and trade, which eventually paved the way for urbanization. With the end of Neolithic period, Stone age ends.
Here, it is essential to remember that the illustrious history of our Allahabad is not limited to just the Stone age times of the Belan Valley. Therefore, in the next article, we will make an effort to understand how the history of our Allahabad unfolded during the Chalcolithic and Vedic Age, and when, why, and how the world-renowned Vatsa Mahajanapada was established.
