The North-West and South-West regions of the Republic of Cameroon are deep into a 3-year war that is showing no signs of abating.
The war is the result of the brutal crackdown by the military of Cameroon, following months of peaceful protests by the English-speaking minority, seeking to address decades-long marginalization policies affecting their educational, legal & judicial systems.
In response to hundreds of killings, maimings, mass-burials, and the burning-down of dozens of villages by the military, self-defense armed groups cropped up all over the two regions to push back and force a settlement to the crisis.
But one wonders — how did this all start? The answers lie in history books, pencil-drawn maps initially sketched on blood-stained napkins, and long-ago handshake deals that were fueled by liquor and tons of gun powder.
To make it easy to understand, here are cartographical maps that visually describe how these two regions got to now. [Tip: to get the most out of this story, I encourage you to zoom in on these relatively-high-resolution maps, as you read down the page.]
1858 — establishment of Victoria (present-day Limbe) by British Missionary, Alfred Saker — Alfred Saker, a British missionary of the London Baptist Missionary Society, arrived the island of Fernando Po in 1844 from London via the West Indies, then moved to Duala (present-day Douala) in 1845.
In 1858, he signed a treaty with the chiefs of Bimbia, acquired land and established the seaside settlement for freed slaves. Saker christened the area Victoria Colony, after the then Queen of England. From 1858 to 1884, Victoria Colony was administered by five successive British Consuls including Saker, Greenfell, Thomson, Lewis and Hewett.
On July 19, 1884, Britain established the Ambas Bay Protectorate, of which Victoria was the capital.
1880s — The ‘Scramble for Africa’ — Following the Berlin Conference of 1884, European countries fought over, acquired and settled across Africa.
On May 7, 1886, the British and Germans agreed to exchange Victoria and its vicinity for German rights at the Forcados River in Nigeria and St. Lucia Bay, KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.
Using pretty much the back of envelopes, Africa was carved-up into over two dozen European ‘possessions’.
On March 28, 1887 Victoria and its vicinity were handed over to the German administration as part of what would later become the German Protectorate of Kamerun.
1901 — German Protectorate of Kamerun — By 1901, Kamerun was a full-fledged colony run by its 16th German Governor, Jesko von Puttkamer.
The town of Buea (today in South-West Region) was the original capital of Kamerun. Kamerun was larger than present-day Cameroon, including parts of present-day Gabon, Congo, Central African Republic, Chad, and Nigeria.
1916 — Germany defeated and German Kamerun territory split between France & Britain — In March 1916, after invading Kamerun from Nigeria on the western front (using British-trained Nigerian forces) and French Equitorial Africa on the eastern front (using French-trained Central African forces), Britain and France signed a treaty in London partitioning Kamerun between them.
The maps below were drawn by the [German/Swiss] Protestant Basel Mission, showing mission offices in British Cameroons; hence the ‘Britisch Kamerun’ on the bottom of the map.
1921 — Southern half of British Cameroons was unofficially administered from Southern Nigeria Protectorate, before the League of Nations was created in 1922 — After the First World War, the League of Nations that was created in 1922 recognized the 1916 treaty of London concerning Cameroon.
Under the League of Nations, French and British Cameroons became Class 1B Mandate Territories. This was in accordance with Article 119 of the Treaty of Versailles of June 28th, 1919, by which Germany renounced all her colonies in favor of the Allies and the Associated Powers.
The former German colonies were thus placed under the sovereignty of the League of Nations.
Although not clearly marked on the following two maps below (2nd map below is a zoom in of the first), the diagonal lines in SE & NE corners of Nigeria show the location of the British Cameroons.
On 26 June 1923, the southern half of British Cameroons was named ‘Cameroons Province’ and officially administered from Lagos, the capital of the Southern Provinces (Protectorate) of Nigeria.
1931 — Boundary between French Cameroun and British Cameroons locked-in— The boundary between the British and French mandates of the Cameroons from the North to Atlantic Ocean was delimited in 1930, and then finalised on 9 January 1931
1947 — Cameroons Province of the Eastern Region of Nigeria — Following the promulgation of Nigeria’s Richards Constitution in 1946, The Southern Provinces of Nigeria were split into two regions (Western and Eastern) and Cameroons Province continued to be administered from Enugu, capital of the Eastern Region, while Northern British Cameroons continued to be administered in three parts from the capitals of the neighboring districts in the Northern Provinces of Nigeria. PS: Click on map / zoom-in to see details.
1948 — Political winds aloft in Cameroons Province — Upon returning to Southern Cameroons from medical school in Lagos, Nigeria, Dr. Emmanuel Endeley served as the secretary of the Cameroons Development Corporation Workers Union. He would go on to create the first political party in Cameroons Province.
Notice in the map below that Cameroons Province (light brown in lower left) was still administered from and was a part of the Eastern Region. Northern Cameroons was actually 4 parts — Dikwa Emirate (green, in far north) administered from Maiduguri; Yola North (yellow, top half) administered from Yola; Yola South (yellow, bottom half) & Mambila (brown), administered from Benue (Makurdi)
1949 — Bamenda Division of Cameroons Province elevated to full Province — Bamenda Division (comprising Wum, Bamenda and Nkambe Divisions) was elevated to a full province (probably on account of its population).
The remainder of the original Cameroons Province (comprising Victoria, Kumba and Mamfe Divisions) and the newly created Bamenda Provinces were administered by British Residents reporting to the Lieutenant Governor of the Southern Protectorate of Nigeria.
1956 — A Quasi-Region within Nigeria — Following the promulgation of Nigeria’s MacPherson (1950) & Lyttleton (1954) Constitutions, beginning on October 26, 1954, Southern Cameroons became a quasi-region within the Federation of Nigeria with an administrative office in Buea.
Dr. Emmanuel Endeley became its Leader of Government Business, answering to Edward John Gibbons, the British Commissioner for Southern Cameroons in Buea.
Mr. Gibbons reported to the Governor-General of Nigeria, Sir John Macpherson, in Lagos.
1958 — Southern Cameroons becomes a full region within Nigeria— Following the constitutional changes in 1957, Southern Cameroons became a full region (4th Region) within the Federation of Nigeria, with Dr. Emmanuel Endeley as Premier. Southern Cameroons’ legislature comprised two chambers: a House of Assembly and a House of Chiefs.
Map below shows Southern Cameroons clearly demarcated from the Eastern Region of Nigeria (in lower right)
1959 — The Year the Battle for the Freely Expressed Wishes of Southern Cameroons was launched — John Ngu Foncha defeated Dr. Emmanuel Endeley in the January 24, 1959 elections, making him the second Premier of Southern Cameroons.
This reversal of fortunes for the British (who heavily supported Dr. Endeley for reelection as Premier — because he favored integration of Southern Cameroons into Nigeria) prompted a battle at the United Nations for the way forward. [John Ngu Foncha’s campaign promise was a nightmare to British colonial aspirations: secession from Nigeria, a period of independence for Southern Cameroons, then gradual reunification with French Cameroun].
John Ngu Foncha’s win and therefore his vision for Southern Cameroons was challenged on the grounds that his margin of victory was slim. Thus was born the idea of a plebiscite, essentially, a second-round of elections on the future of Southern Cameroons! [Want to learn more about Southern Cameroons’ history? Watch the Freely Expressed Wishes YouTube docuseries]
After much-debate and months-long gridlock at the United Nations in New York in March and September 1959, Southern Cameroons was shoe-horned into accepting a “two-option” plebiscite by the United Nations Resolution 1352 (XIV) on October 16, 1959.
Southern Cameroons was by then administered by British Commissioner John O. Field under the command of the Governor General of Nigeria (Sir James Wilson Robertson) in Lagos.
Pink line in map below shows boundary of British Cameroons within Nigeria
January 1, 1960 — The Trust Territory of French Cameroun becomes independent from France — Although the Trust Territories of British Cameroons and French Cameroun shared the name ‘Cameroon’, they were administered separately for over 45 years. They adopted different educational, legal, judicial and cultural systems from their respective colonizers.
The early independence of French Cameroon as the Republic of Cameroon would have implications for Southern Cameroons in the months and years to come. The independence of French Cameroun is said to have been rushed even by leaders within French Cameroun at the time (Andre Marie Mbida).
It became an independent country without a constitution or an elected president. Mr Ahmadu Ahidjo as Head of Government on January 1, 1960, was finally elected President in April 1960 and installed on May 5, 1960. Becoming a sovereign nation put pressure on the British to prepare Southern Cameroons for self-government or independence.
October 1960 — Southern Cameroons Re-emerges — On the independence of Nigeria on October 1, 1960, the Southern Cameroons Order-In-Council was promulgated by the UK Partliament, separating Southern Cameroons from Nigeria.
From that day forward, the British Commissioner for Southern Cameroons reported to the British Colonial Office in London.
Notice in map below that both Northern and Southern Cameroons are shown as distinct territories (in pink) apart from Nigeria.
June 1961 — Northern Cameroons ‘achieves independence by joining’ Nigeria — two plebiscites were held in Northern Cameroons.
The first, on November 7, 1959 asked “Do you wish to join Nigeria when it becomes independent, OR do you wish to think about it later?”. You read that right! Northern Cameroons answered, “We will think about it later”.
Barely a month later (!), the United Nations, at the urging of the British, declared a second plebiscite set for February — March 1961. The Plebiscite took place on February 11 & 12, 1961 to determine whether British Northern Cameroons should ‘achieve independence by joining its independent’ neighbors to the west (Nigeria) or east (Republic of Cameroun).
The option of outright independence was denied by the United Kingdom & United Nations because the UK essentially bet that Northern Cameroons would join Nigeria over Cameroon. Which sadly or happily, it did.
As seen in the map below, Northern Cameroons from that day (June 1) disappeared off the map, absorbed into Nigeria, while Southern Cameroons stayed on a while longer, negotiating the terms of its union with the Republic of Cameroon.
October 1, 1961 — Southern Cameroons ‘achieves independence by joining the independent country of the’ Republic of Cameroun to create the Federal Republic of Cameroon —a separate plebiscite (from Northern Cameroons) was held on February 11, 1961 to determine whether the British Southern Cameroons should ‘achieve independence by joining the independent’ neighbors to the west (Nigeria) or east (Republic of Cameroun).
The option of outright independence, the most popular and the freely expressed wishes of the people, was denied by the United Kingdom & United Nations because the UK essentially bet that Southern Cameroons would join Nigeria over Cameroon.
However, fears of Igbo-domination and a misunderstanding of the meaning of the options on the ballot (that joining Cameroun would mean independence first, then ‘gradual’ reunification with Cameroun) drove a majority of Southern Cameroons voters to chose Cameroun over Nigeria.
In the new federation, Southern Cameroons was renamed the State of West Cameroon (fr. Cameroun Occidental) and the Republic of Cameroun was renamed the State of East Cameroon (fr. Cameroun Oriental).
The 2-state country was renamed the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The ‘joining’ of Southern Cameroons was celebrated as a ‘reunification’, as shown in the commemorative stamp below.
The Premier of Southern Cameroons, John Ngu Foncha became the vice-president of the Federal Republic of Cameroon, under President Ahmadu Ahidjo, the leader of the Republic of Cameroon at its independence in 1960.
1972 — Federation unconstitutionally revoked, West Cameroon split into two provinces (North-West and South-West)— On May 6, 1972, President Ahidjo ordered a referendum asking the entire country to vote on whether the federal structure of government should be abolished in favor of a unitary form of government.
It wasn’t really a question — it was a ‘fait accompli’. This act was unconstitutional because the Federal Constitution’s 47th article expressly forbade any action that would impair the “integrity of the federation”. But by then, President Ahidjo had consolidated all power and no one dared challenge his decision to dismantle the federation.
The referendum — that took place on May 20, 1972 — was not restricted to West Cameroonians / English-speaking people — who had negotiated a federal arrangement specifically to safeguard their educational, legal, cultural ways of life. The voice of the English-speaking people was drowned by the voices of the people in the more populated East Cameroon.
With the abolition of the Federal Government, the State of West Cameroon was split into two provinces on June 1, 1972 (North-West and South-West Provinces). The President changed the name of the country from the Federal Republic of Cameroon to the United Republic of Cameroon.
Some scholars have alleged that the discovery of crude oil off the coast of West Cameroon in the late 1960s was the main factor in President Ahidjo’s decision to dismantle the federation.
They claimed that this opened the doors for the central government to control oil revenues exclusively — something that would not have been possible had the State of West Cameroon survived.
1983— Cameroon expands from 7 provinces to 10 — The large Northern province was split into three, and the Center-South province was split into two.
The town of Victoria (in present-day South West Province) was renamed ‘Limbe’ in 1982 by President Ahidjo, following the inauguration of the nation’s oil refinery.
1984 — Dropping ‘United Republic of Cameroon’ for ‘Republic of Cameroon’— two years into his term, President Paul Biya renamed the country the Republic of Cameroon.
This was the name that French Cameroun had assumed when it became independent on January 1, 1960. This change sparked unrest within the English-speaking legal community with some scholars claiming that the name reversal indicated the completion of the annexation of Southern Cameroons into Cameroon.
They argued that nothing in the name of the country represented the minority Southern Cameroons that had decided to join Cameroon in 1961 in a federal union.
A year later, English-speaking lawyer, Fon Gorji Dinka, coined the word ‘Ambazonia’ as a new identity for the English-speaking people who came into the union from Southern Cameroons. Ambazonia was derived from ‘Ambas Bay’, the bay in the Atlantic Ocean bordering Southern Cameroons.
The impetus for a new name or identity was in no small part driven by the need to avoid confusions with the name of the newly-created South Province of Cameroon.
October 2016 to now — Lawyer and Teacher strikes harshly repressed resulting in dozens of deaths and sparking an armed conflict — Common-law (English-speaking) lawyers called a strike in October 2016, demanding protections for common law practice within the English-speaking regions, instead of civil law (practiced in French-speaking Cameroon).
Lawyers were beaten and some were thrown in jail. Teachers followed suit, asking for protections for English-language system of education and met similar reprisals from the government. The leaders of the consortium of teachers, lawyers and community organizers were thrown in jail and the military cracked down, killing dozens.
The rest, sadly, is history…
Ready for a quiz on Southern Cameroons’ history? Try it now!
