Effective memory techniques: How to study smarter, not harder
Based on psychological studies in the field of attention and memory.
Our lives are heavily dependent on our ability to gain knowledge in order to survive and function in society. To do this, we need to be able to effectively store and retrieve information from memory. One such example is when you are trying to study, and retain information for use in a future related event, such as an exam. Do not rely on your cramming study skills!
A variety of psychological theories in the field of attention and memory have emerged for such purposes, suggesting effective techniques for memory encoding (storing) and retrieval, and more specifically for processing, organising, generating, spacing and testing such information.
In this article…
You will learn to use three memory techniques, based on psychological studies in the field of attention and memory, to aid you in your future learning and self-developement: (1) processing new information, (2) spacing chunks of information over time, and (3) testing what you learn.
1. Levels of processing (LOP)
There are three LOP known as:
- Shallow level: graphemic
- Intermediate level: phonemic
- Deep level: semantic, i.e. the meaning of words.
The theory on the three LOP suggests that the deeper the processing level, the greater the understanding behind the meaning of what was encoded (stored) in memory and thus the stronger the effect on memory and retrieval [1], [2]. For example, if you learn in a parrot-fashion, as in trying to memorise and repeat something without really understanding what it means, you will have a much harder time recalling it later on than if you tried to put it in context or link it with any prior relevant knowledge you might have.
Processing information and its meaning, as part of a more detailed sentence (for context), or getting together with other people to discuss what you have learned, are big contributing factors for remembering that information later on.
The LOP theory is heavily influenced by Anne Treisman’s attenuation theory, which stipulates that stimuli on attention go through a hierarchical process of pass-fail analysis until they are either encoded (stored) in memory, or fail trying [3], [4]. This process is dependent on three factors:
- the perceptual importance and meaning of the stimulus (e.g. responding to your name even while not paying attention, because it is an important part of your identity)
- internal influences (e.g. your expectations)
- external influences towards one’s attentional control (e.g. background noise)
The LOP model has received support by numerous studies. One such study presented individual words through a tachistoscope to participants, without being told they would be expected to recall them afterwards [5]. Before each word-display, participants were asked a relevant question linked to that word. The questions were designed based on the LOP framework. During the recall stage, it was revealed that words involved in deeper LOP (i.e. on the semantic level rather than just orthographic) had exponentially more positive results. The researchers added that by prompting participants to process words and their meaning as part of a more detailed sentence was also a big contributing factor.
Linking new words or terms with your existing knowledge in a subject is suggested to enhance the encoding (storing) and retrieval process in memory.
Other researchers also mentioned that by specifying a stage of the LOP as a requirement of a memory test (e.g. asking to focus only on orthography), yielded better results on memory recall [6]. Further supportive studies found that providing context to words, strengthens even more their recall success rate [7], while teaming-up LOP with factors of ‘distinctiveness’, and prior relevant knowledge in the subject is also suggested to enhance the encoding and retrieval process of new words [8], [9].
2. Spacing effect
The spacing effect refers to splitting learning material in smaller chunks to be rehearsed and memorised over time, rather than cramming everything in one go. Many studies have been shown to be in support of the spaced repetition learning approach, including a meta-analysis study taking into account 839 assessments of 317 experiments [10]. Findings suggested that a combination of spaced learning with incremental repetition intervals, showed consistent benefits for final test results. For example, instead of revising the same information every day or every week, when you find yourself remembering it more often, then spread out its rehearsal for two or three weeks later, then a month later, and so on.
The spacing effect refers to splitting learning material in smaller chunks to be rehearsed and memorised over time, rather than cramming everything in one go, which works best with incremental repetition intervals.
Another study went further in suggesting that in a 6-month period, optimal retention resulted when the interval between the initial study session and the rehearsal one, was set to roughly 10–20% of that between the rehearsal session and the final assessment [11]. The optimal spacing interval was proposed after observations in learning decline throughout a varied timeframe on spaced rehearsals. Further studies in support of spaced learning practices, go even further by proposing effective flashcard software (e.g. Anki), built based on the spacing effect, to be used as a memory and learning aid in the classroom [12], [13].
A combination of spaced learning, with incremental repetition intervals (e.g. with the aid of effective flashcard software such as Anki), shows consistent benefits for final test results.
3. Testing effect (also known as ‘retrieval practice’)
While ‘testing’ typically implies checking final retention of information once the study period is over, many studies have explored the role of testing as a retrieval practice during the studying period. The testing effect simply refers to this use of testing as a practice technique [2]. For example, you can test yourself on what you have learned and understood, by preparing questions on your subject and going through them either on your own, or with the help of a friend.
Asking yourself questions on the material you have learned, proves more successful for longer term memorisation than just passively re-reading material.
Some researchers assessed the evidence from existing studies comparing a variety of learning methods (e.g. visualising difficult concepts, re-studying material, using notes, outlining essay structures, etc), and concluded that the testing effect had the best results [14], [15]. In other studies, participants had to memorise a block of text by either reading it once and implementing the testing effect three times, reading it three times and implement the testing effect only once, or reading it four times without any testing practice [16], [17]. The first option was the most successful for longer term memorisation.
An explanation behind the effectiveness of the testing effect was focused on the use of more effective mediator-strategies [18]. That means that by assigning further context or descriptive words and remarks to the learning material, it helps individuals make the link between memory-stored information, and retrieval, faster. In cases where the mediator was not helpful, the testing effect allows individuals to identify that sooner and swap it with another, potentially more effective mediator [18], [19]. These testing and retrieval strategies further support the deep LOP (semantic level), proposed earlier.
Concluding remarks
LOP theory has enhanced our understanding of memory and learning ability as more than just a case of simple storage, but as an activity dependent on the link-strength between encoding (i.e. the way you memorise information) and retrieval. Furthermore, much evidence supports the effectiveness of spacing and testing techniques, at least under simple laboratory conditions (e.g. testing for single or paired words only).
More research could be done to confirm these findings under more complex and varied real-life scenarios. Nevertheless, current research has already led to useful tools, such as spaced repetition flashcard software (e.g. Anki), which many people, including myself, already rely on to remember important information for years to come.
I will leave you with an interesting, short video (by Prof. Robert A. Bjork) on the power of testing (i.e. testing effect, or retrieval practice) 😊
Note from the author…
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‘A Cup of Psyence’ is a collection of essays on human psychology, science, user experience (UX), technology, and general wellbeing — curated by C. Maltezou-Papastylianou, with the occasional invited article by other experts.
