Porcelain
Whether you eat off of it, see it in a museum, or find it in your bathroom, this smooth, white, delicate yet strong material revolutionized ceramic and significantly impacted culture, trade, and material development in its various uses throughout history.
I. Introduction
Porcelain
Porcelain is a type of ceramic, which includes strong but brittle materials made from both metallic and nonmetallic elements. Ceramic itself is a category of solids derived from rocks (minerals, clay, sand, etc.), usually fired to change the structure to a crystalline, more durable form. Compared to ceramic, porcelain is composed of higher-refined clay and is fired at higher temperatures. Early porcelain dates back to 3,500 years BP in China, long after ceramic was developed as the first man-made material 25,000 years BP (Texas Architecture 2021). Common applications of porcelain include dishware, art, sinks, and numerous other products.
Common Perceptions
Porcelain is typically perceived as a dainty material, such as in art pieces or porcelain dolls, but this material is surprisingly durable. My initial conception primarily referred to dishware, since I grew up watching my mother invest in decorative porcelain dishes and admired her collection in the glass cabinet. This is most likely a widespread impression of porcelain since porcelain dishes are more common within households; others may argue that porcelain is more frequently viewed as an artistic material if an individual has only seen it within that context, such as with porcelain vases or figures. Since my mother has a pension for material items (no matter how seemingly impractical), my personal view of different materials leans toward her acquired collections that permeated my everyday home environment.
Burning Questions
In what areas has porcelain been used most?
What are the different applications of porcelain?
How did the development of porcelain affect society/culture over time?
II. Origins
Material Ingredients
Kaolin: Also known as China clay, kaolin is a white-colored, fine clay composed of the mineral kaolinite, a hydrous aluminum silicate. The white color either occurs naturally or after processing has removed other minerals, and this quality, along with its gloss and hardness, allows for porcelain making. The name originates from Mandarin and means “high ridge,” as kaolin was discovered at a hill in southeastern China. Although mined from places all around the world, the more high-quality deposits can be found in southeast U.S., Brazil, and the U.K. This material is also used in paper and other products, such as paint and fertilizer (Industrial Minerals Association — North America, n.d.).
Quartz: Quartz, also known as silicon dioxide or silica, is a crystalline mineral that is one of the most abundant in the earth’s crust, found in almost every type of rock. Due to its translucency and vitreous luster, quartz is used in glassmaking and ceramics. Specifically in ceramics, ground silica (quartz powder) acts as a “skeleton” for clay to attach to. This mineral has numerous uses in other areas such as water filtration, paint filler, chemical production, etc.(Industrial Minerals Association — North America, n.d.).
Feldspar: Feldspars include a great range of materials and are aluminum silicates combined with a variety of different elements, like sodium or calcium. It makes up 60% of the earth’s crust and can be mined from multiple different places, from the U.S. to Switzerland. The most significant component of feldspar in its industrial use is the amount of alumina and alkali. Since feldspar does not have a specific melting point, it aids in and allows adjustments to the melting process of clay and quartz in ceramic creation and strengthens the ceramic body. Feldspar is also used in glassmaking and as fillers (Industrial Minerals Association — North America, n.d.).
Timeline
Creation of ceramic (29,500 to 25,000 BP): One of the first instances of ceramic use was the Venus of Dolní Věstonice, created by firing a clay and earth mixture. This was a noteworthy development considering that it was the first man-made material, demonstrating human manipulation of raw materials, which opened the path for other man-made materials to arise (Texas Architecture 2021).
Invention of early porcelain (3,500 BP): While attempting to improve ceramic at the time, the Chinese had invented porcelain, an entirely new category of ceramic, by using mixtures of different minerals in different amounts and firing at higher temperatures (Miodownik 2014, 295). These earlier versions acted as pioneers that allowed for the continued development of porcelain.
Porcelain developed further (25 to 220 CE (Eastern Han Dynasty)): Porcelain that is closer to today’s porcelain was created, and these more refined processes required high skill level and added to the value of this material. Despite being made 2,000 years ago, these porcelain pieces are durable enough to last and still display the colors and translucent characteristic from their initial fabrication (Gavin 2021).
Use of more sophisticated kilns (601 to 800 CE): The incorporation of more sophisticated kilns allowed for porcelain with less porosity (less than 1%) to be created, which advanced the development of high quality porcelain (Texas Architecture 2021).
Silk Road trade (618 to 907 CE (Tang Dynasty)): As trade increased along the Silk Road trade routes, Chinese porcelain was produced and exported to the west at higher rates (Gavin 2021). Tea-drinking also became popular as a way to show off porcelain’s quality, and this tradition followed the porcelain exports wherever they went, spreading Chinese culture (Miodownik 2014, 296–97).
Porcelain in Korea (960 to 1279 CE (Song Dynasty)): Koreans began making porcelain (supposedly) during this time period, and this was spread to Japan later in the 17th century. These cultures added their own stylistic elements (Gavin 2021), and this demonstrates the spread of porcelain not just to western areas but to east Asia as well.
Imperial porcelain production center (1004 CE): Jingdezhen in the Jiangxi province was appointed as an imperial porcelain production center (due to the kaolin deposits nearby) and remained as a main porcelain production center for the next 900 years (Gavin 2021). The scale of porcelain production was massive as demand increased.
Ming porcelain enhanced (1368 to 1664 CE (Ming Dynasty)): Ming porcelain, identifiable by its cobalt blue and white designs, was enhanced due to a technological improvement in manganese so that the blue color would not bleed. This specific porcelain became extremely popular during that time period, especially overseas (Gavin 2021), and is still iconic today.
Dutch capture of Portuguese ships (1603): When the Dutch captured Portuguese ships, they sold the cargo, which had included several Ming porcelain pieces, and this led to an even greater fascination for porcelain in Europe (Gavin 2021). Europeans had attempted to create porcelain due to its high value and trade prices but were unsuccessful (Miodownik 2014, 297).
Böttger creates porcelain in Germany (1708): Johann Friedrich Böttger was an alchemist recruited by von Tschirnhaus (a Dresden scientist) to create porcelain in Germany and eventually accomplished just that (Antique Marks, n.d.). Up until now, porcelain pieces owned by westerners were primarily exports as the method for making porcelain was not common knowledge outside of China.
Letter on how to make porcelain (1712): François Xavier d’Entrecolles (a French Jesuit) had visited China and proceeded to write a letter on how to make porcelain, which was then published and allowed Europe to learn porcelain making at a more widespread level (Entrecolles 1712).
Present (2021): Porcelain has fundamentally remained mostly the same and is still used in countless products today, from items as common as dishware to the less ubiquitous laboratory equipment and in unexpected places such as electrical insulation (African Pegmatite, n.d.).
III. Context
In regard to porcelain, there are many challenges associated with its production and use. Higher temperatures are needed when firing, which is a more expensive and difficult process. The raw materials are primarily mined, which can lead to depletion of these minerals, and the carbon emissions from mining and firing are detrimental to the environment and human health.
Furthermore, because firing is an irreversible process (chemical reaction where the water evaporates and atoms form a crystal lattice structure) (Miodownik 2014, 291), porcelain cannot be recycled (though some companies have been working to find ways to reuse this material through other innovative means). This leads to a higher embodied energy, and since much of porcelain that is consumed is not actually used for any specific purpose other than decor, the material efficiency is substantially lowered. Porcelain can also chip or crack if handled inappropriately or heated too high.
Some ethical issues to be considered include potential labor exploitation in the mining or manufacturing process — if workers are paid a fair wage, work under safe conditions, are of appropriate age, and have general freedom in what they are able to do.
In terms of accessibility, kaolin, specifically, may not be an accessible material depending on where the deposits are located (Industrial Minerals Association — North America, n.d.) but can be transported (which further adds to carbon emissions). The process of porcelain making also requires tools, such as a kiln, which may not be as accessible. Moreover, porcelain costs more than the average ceramic piece due to its quality and production.
On the contrary, porcelain is a choice material to use for aesthetic purposes due to its translucent white color (other colors can be added as well) and ability to be thin, light, and smooth but still sturdy. These qualities were extremely valuable in part due to the knowledge and skill required for production, lending porcelain its perception as a “royal” material in past centuries (Miodownik 2014, 296). Other characteristics, including electrical resistivity and hardness, allow it to be utilized in electrical insulation, dentistry, and laboratory equipment (African Pegmatite, n.d.).
Since porcelain is a type of ceramic, it follows the consumption of ceramics, whether as building materials or in everyday household items. In an artistic context, it functions and is consumed as decor. However, due to its delicacy, some individuals would rather handle less fragile materials and steer away from porcelain.
IV. Case Studies
Laguna Clay Company
Ethical issues involved in porcelain can be cited within the mining process, such as with unfair labor or wages. The Laguna Clay company, which produces different clays, glazes, and other materials and equipment related to clay, is committed to ethical business practices to limit the consequences on the environment and the human population as well. Laguna Clay does attempt to source locally and minimize their carbon footprint, and the mining techniques involved are considered ethical.
By sourcing locally, this decreases the transportation needed to ship materials to customers, which in turn decreases the pollutants released into the air and the fuel used in vehicles. This would limit the negative impacts of resource extraction, both in terms of sustainability and ethics, which is a crucial aspect of human rights.
On the other hand, the mining of mineral resources still depletes them no matter how ethical the practices are, which is detrimental to the earth and affects how we should be using these minerals with the intent of finding alternatives to these materials or potential ways to reuse or recycle what we have already extracted. Overall, though, the Laguna Clay company imposes a greater amount of benefit rather than harm, especially in comparison to other companies that exploit resources or humans.
Cosmetic/Resin Bonding
One of the issues with porcelain is its affordability. In dentistry, porcelain veneers are used to cover and act as teeth, either making them appear whiter or used to customize teeth shape/size. However, porcelain veneers can be costly, and one alternative is to use cosmetic bonding instead. Cosmetic bonding, also known as resin bonding, involves tooth-colored resin that is bonded to the teeth, which can then be shaped and sized to match other teeth or fix chips/cracks. This process also takes less time than fitting porcelain veneers, increasing convenience for dental patients. However, cosmetic/resin bonding can stain and wear down over time and is less durable than porcelain veneers, leading to more chips. This leads to a trade-off between expenses and durability, and there can be a cost-benefit analysis.
Despite porcelain veneers being stronger, the cost of porcelain and the time needed may not be favorable initially. On the other hand, cosmetic/resin bonding is not as strong, and over time, the amount of repairs needed and the cost of these repairs can surpass the original cost of porcelain veneers. This also depends on the extent of these materials utilized for the teeth; porcelain veneers may be better for more coverage over a greater number of teeth or if the whole tooth would require application, while cosmetic/resin bonding may be better for smaller areas or partial tooth coverage.
V. Action
Grab a dish or cup from your cupboard — what is it made of? Is the first item you grabbed made of glass or plastic, or something entirely different, like ceramic? If it is ceramic-like, is it actually ceramic, or possibly a subtype of ceramic, such as porcelain? Does it say on the bottom, or would you have to inquire further? Here is a short clip on a few of the key differences between ceramic and porcelain mugs, specifically.
After watching the video, if you were to encounter a porcelain mug, would you be able to distinguish if it was porcelain? Were there times when you may have confused ceramic and porcelain, or lumped them altogether as one (even though porcelain is a type of ceramic)?
Furthermore, do you agree that porcelain is a “fancier” material, or is it simply because of the cultural values placed on porcelain? Is there a definitive reason ceramic is considered not as fancy or flashy?
These ubiquitous materials may seem as one, uniform entity, but even the slightest of variances can be found and make all the difference in their use. Discovering the characteristics of our everyday material world changes the way we view and interact with our surroundings.
VI. Analysis
Through the investigation of porcelain above, this material has a plethora of applications, both commonly known and not as commonly known, that fulfill a certain purpose in differing circumstances. As mentioned in the introduction, porcelain is typically perceived in the realm of porcelain dishes, tiles, and art. Other applications not in the forefront, or that may come as a surprise to individuals, include electrical insulation, laboratory equipment, and dentistry. The continued use of porcelain outside of its primary, original use for dishware underscores its importance in the material world and highlights its contributions to culture and society over time.
Throughout history, the development of porcelain affected society and culture by functioning as a new material for figurines and sculptures and furthering trade. This gave rise to an opportunity for expanded artistic designs, becoming a substantial aspect of culture, such as with China and its porcelain dishware. Moreover, porcelain’s role in trade increased cross-cultural interactions, expediting globalization and extending the influence of diverse cultures on each other. Porcelain became a symbol of wealth, which further increased its popularity and desirability.
In terms of welfare, land use and human exploitation remain some of the most significant issues. This involves the mining of minerals for porcelain and even in the manufacture of porcelain itself, depending on how the porcelain is made, and whether it is mass-produced, as mass-production factories have had ongoing labor exploitation cases.
Accessibility tends to be a concern due to the cost of porcelain and the processes needed to create porcelain, as a kiln that can reach higher temperatures is needed. The extraction location of ingredients can vary and may not be local, necessitating transportation for porcelain manufacture.
Although porcelain has proven as a durable material, it can also be delicate and chip easily or wear down over time with continuous heating and cooling. This prevents individuals to purchase porcelain, especially when taking cost into consideration; in other words, if the higher cost is worth the fragility and possibility of breaking. However, the emotional resilience is significant, and with care, porcelain can be stored for long periods of time and maintain its colors and appearance.
The emotional resilience of porcelain leads into its value as a material. The invention of such a delicate, beautiful material signaled the progress of aesthetic materials at that time, creating the notion of wealth and power associated with porcelain. As demand continued, so did porcelain production, spreading to a wider range of regions and used by many across the world. Porcelain pieces are still preserved, kept in collections or displayed in museum exhibits, which implies a subtle attachment to this material.
In the future, there is the potential for additional applications of porcelain, especially with the rate at which materials have been progressing within the past few decades. Before, porcelain was primarily used for dishes but has since expanded to fields completely irrelevant to dishware. It has been used as a building material, especially in tiling or other appliances within kitchens and bathrooms, but there is a shift toward more modern materials that may function more efficiently than porcelain. There is the uncertainty that the newer materials may outshine porcelain and replace it altogether, which can be beneficial, such as if a new material may require fewer land inputs, decrease environmental damage, increase longevity and durability, or consume less energy in the manufacturing process.
Overall, porcelain is an appropriate material in the 21st century, but only to a certain extent. Unless its variety of usage expands, other materials may push porcelain out of focus and replace it altogether. Despite not being the most practical material, there is great value in its capacity for artistic and creative manipulation. With this in mind, the preservation of these materials allows for the continued impact of culture on humans, not just science, and demonstrates the importance of creative expression in society.
VII. References
African Pegmatite. n.d. “What Is Porcelain And How Is It Made.” Accessed March 13, 2021. https://mineralmilling.com/what-is-porcelain-and-how-is-it-made/.
Antique Marks. n.d. “Johann Friedrich Bottger.” Accessed March 13, 2021. https://antique-marks.com/johann-friedrich-bottger.html.
Cartwright, Mark. Ming Dynasty Blue-and-White Porcelain. February 1, 2019. The British Museum, London. https://www.ancient.eu/image/9996/ming-dynasty-blue-and-white-porcelain/.
Entrecolles, François X. 1712. “The First Letter from Père d’Entrecolles.” Translated by Cheryl M. Cordeiro. Jan-Erik Nilsson, Gotheborg.com. http://gotheborg.com/letters/letters_first.shtml
Fired Clay Venus from Dolni Vestonice. Smithsonian Institution. https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/3d-collection/artifacts/fired-clay-venus-dolni-vestonice.
Gavin. 2021. “Chinese Porcelain History from the 1st Century to the 20th.” Last modified March 8, 2021. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/culture/porcelain-history.htm.
Industrial Minerals Association — North America. n.d. “WHAT IS FELDSPAR?” Accessed March 13, 2021. https://www.ima-na.org/page/what_is_feldspar.
Industrial Minerals Association — North America. n.d. “WHAT IS INDUSTRIAL SAND?” Accessed March 13, 2021. https://www.ima-na.org/page/what_is_ind_sand.
Industrial Minerals Association — North America. n.d. “WHAT IS KAOLIN?” Accessed March 13, 2021. https://www.ima-na.org/page/what_is_kaolin.
Janicki, Sebastian. Pure Quartz Crystal cluster on black background. https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/pure-quartz-crystal-cluster-on-black-537503836
Jiang, Wanjuan. Peeking into the world’s oldest porcelain production line. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/travel/2014-11/19/content_18941084_8.htm
Kaolin. Hosokawa Micron Powder Systems. https://www.hmicronpowder.com/industries/mineral/kaolin.
Mansson, Martin J. The Silk Road and Arab Sea Routes. https://transportgeography.org/contents/chapter1/emergence-of-mechanized-transportation-systems/silk-road-arab-sea-routes-12th-century/.
Miodownik, Mark. 2014. Stuff Matters: Exploring the Marvelous Materials that Shape Our Man-Made World. New York: Houghton.
Texas Architecture. “M1 L4 Material.” YouTube video, 8:19. January 18, 2021. https://youtu.be/HKBnJmsqmU0.
Texas Architecture. “M2 L2 Hominids.” YouTube video, 8:37. January 21, 2021. https://youtu.be/PaSq6ktjwoY.
Texas Architecture. “M2 L4 Ancient.” YouTube video, 15:45. January 21, 2021. https://youtu.be/Qw81neim8Ec.
Texas Architecture. “M2 L6 Medieval.” YouTube video, 11:48. January 21, 2021. https://youtu.be/anXW2R7Utio.
