A framework for Architectural Design
Theme, Atmosphere and Narrative in Architecture
1 Introduction
Architecture is the creation of ideas, the implementation of abstract into physical form, and the manipulation of space to make and shape the places in which we may inhabit. It is the creation of the built environment and beyond the necessity of shelter and protection, it differentiates itself from simple construction by being places which enhance our lives and bring together art, philosophy, and applied science. The importance of architecture is that it enhances lives. At its best, it makes the world a better place by constructing for beauty, social, and environmental conditions. At its worst, it promotes the division of economic gains. Architecture which will improve lives is highly subjective and differs by opinion. That opinion is influenced by who we are, our culture, education, current and past social histories, and the contextual environment. The view of good meaningful architecture also changes over time, depending on trends, styles, and opinions of both the individual and society at large. The implication of meaningful architecture can be observed in architectural theories of a given time which seek to answer philosophical questions of what we value and how want to live our lives. A large portion of architectural theory also concerns the physical manifestation of forms, shapes, and bodies of materials, no doubt due to the very physical nature of architecture. The most recent modern movement when Avant grand architects put pen to page developed well-known architectural theories including Le Corbusier’s 5 points of Modern Architecture, Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe’s “Less is more” and Louis Kahn’s, “What do you want, brick?” The interconnected nature of philosophy and architectural theory seeks to understand some part of human existence and enhance it through the built form. Beyond the subjective aesthetic preferences of one building over another, creating buildings that improve our lives must seek to answer questions on what a building does for us, how we relate to it, and what message it has for us and the world.
The most influential architecture has an impact on our soul. Although everyone will be impacted differently, based on who we are, our culture, history, intellect, and environment, the most memorable architecture does so through a shared and relatable experience. That experience does not need to occur simultaneously but begins with the first impression and continues through the inhabitation of spaces inconsiderate of time. It questions our preconceived notions of what a building is, how it is used, and as we move through it, how we relate to it in mind and body. It speaks of an idea and conveys meaning that is larger than the physical structure itself. Tied to this experience, the architecture with the most impact has forms with unexpected moments sparking a series of emotions and a memorable sense of being such as awe, wonder, intimacy, and excitement. Architecture that speaks through emotions conveys a message to the individual as well as the world beyond regardless of when it was experienced in time.
Architecture should be designed for spatial experiences that generate memorable moments and emotions. Architecture should change our perception of space and raise our emotional awareness. Since the architect is rarely the builder, the architect must be able to generate an idea and then communicate it effectively. A large portion of architecture is the conceptualization of an idea and the design process. We can easily find examples of good architecture with a simple search, but the process of creation is more elusive. How does one approach the design process and what are the key ingredients that lead to a successful result?
The intent of this paper is to examine three critical elements of the design process which will result in architecture that creates a memorable experience and will generate an emotional response. These elements are examined and proposed to be established at the beginning of the design as the conceptual origins to set a vectored trajectory for a successful design process. The three elements are: theme, atmosphere, and narrative. To minimize side-tracks and convoluted thinking, it becomes critical that these elements are studied at the initial onset of a design immediately after a site analysis to ensure a directed design. Furthermore, they should be continuously acknowledged throughout the creative process to remain on track and adjust the design as required. The theme creates the first impression and is an idea that unifies the project through a single design language. It is used to manipulate physical forms to generate spaces that will create moments. Within these moments the crafting of atmospheres which cause emotional responses in the occupant such as curiosity, excitement, or solitude. The narrative tells a story by acknowledging the site history and gives meaning to the architecture by building a relationship to the occupant, both through symbolism and spatial experience. These three critical elements are considered as they relate to the initial conceptualization of an architectural project within the framework of a conceptual process to develop a design trajectory which will lead the architectural design towards a spatial experience with emotional impact.
2 Design Process
There are many ways to approach the initiation and beginnings of a project. In architecture there is a strong gravitation to precedent study, using previous buildings as the starting point. Sometimes these buildings are outright copied and other times they are mashed up with other buildings to create a conglomeration of features. The design by precedent study is largely an exercise in selecting features from a catalogue of previously made architecture like a shopping list of sit-stairs, grand atriums, and cozy nooks to assemble into a wrapped shell. But forming the architecture based on a desire for internal features or by listing out a desired program is an indirect method for creating experience. Simultaneously, when organizing a building layout around a program, the building form is more likely to expresses the internals, resulting in largely rectilinear boxes. This is a lost opportunity to sculpt the building form through deeper meaning. Another common design approach relies heavily on functional diagrams, attempting to distill the aesthetic decisions of the building form into a short series of moves depicting large-scale volumetric manipulation. By recounting the design as a series of pull, pushes, shears and rotations, the design is decidedly narrated not by the human condition but by an expression of solids and voids rendering the architecture into a series of opaque and transparent surfaces.
The aim of this framework is to provide an alternative means for developing a concept that is not focused on feature design or massing study and instead uses theme, atmosphere, and narrative as critical elements to establish a project base and set the design trajectory. In mathematics a vector is described by direction and magnitude. The vector has an origin and either a radial angle or a second point through which to draw the vector’s direction. In either case the originating point and direction are equally essential to defining the functional equation. In architecture, we can relate the origin and direction of the design process to the starting point where the values, goals, and ideas are first determined and the direction to the design process. The significance of the starting point cannot be understated. All future actions and decisions are in some way related to this origin, which like the sprouting of a new tree, each branch offers possible design avenues, some with higher branches than others. As a project progresses, the number of decisions and discoveries make altering the trajectory of the project progressively more difficult. When a design has advanced so far as to be developed but is unenjoyable it can be incredibly difficult to alter course. Design is not a linear process but if the original vector is well aimed, the design process can be a series of directed refinements rather than a meandering path filled with backtracking.
3 Origins
Although it is possible to create architecture without a site, such as for temporary installations or as art artifacts, the availability of a site as a generator of ideas is a severely undervalued. Architecture that understands the site context can reveal layered history and build upon a palimpsest, weaving history into the narrative of the design. Through a comprehensive site analysis, the design can indicate palimpsest in nature, construction and geology that occurs as occupation, use, and erosion modified and change the site over time. Site study is an opportunity to reuse and repurpose existing materials to give greater meaning to the project, relate to cultural values of specific materials, views, or interpretations, and to set the canvas on which the theme and atmosphere will expand. Furthermore, a palimpsest which leaves traces of the site’s former use brings a richness and a sense of duration to the project that does not exist through a clean slate design.[i] Maintaining the site’s history and layering between the old and the new, respecting the site’s history but repurposing it for a new meaning has greater value and meaning than omission.
3.1 Site
Rootedness to site, context, culture, and time help ground the project to the landscape in a way that greenfield construction cannot by applying learning from the landscape in regenerative design for ecological balance while also limiting resource use and adapting to the local climate and topography. Understanding the site and cultivating the landscape to sustain a richer experience requires an understanding of the geological processes that formed the landscape as well as the local flora, fauna, and climate. Through careful study of local climate, weather, sun shading, wind, rain, drainage, seasonal changes, and previous construction, the design will be prepared to respond to the site and balance multiple considerations.
Therefore, the site should be the origins of the design process and the architecture. Through a comprehensive understanding of the site context, history, and spatial characteristics the design process can begin by outlining the desired theme, atmosphere, and narrative. These three elements will set the trajectory of the design process from conceptualization to construction. “The conceptualization phase of a design requires the generation of an overriding theory to organize and direct all aspects of the design process to follow. When conceived as a clear singular idea, a good concept is able to consolidate the myriad complexities of any given project.”[ii] The beginning of the concept stage is therefore critical to the project design and an appropriate time to establish the theme, atmosphere, and narrative.
3.2 Theme
The theme is a unifying idea that ties the project together under a single design language. It can be described as an abstract idea which is manifested into physical form and requires finding a way to represent an idea or the implication of an idea indirectly through implied meaning. The Japanese architects are at the forefront of thematic conceptualization as they, “approach their work with an acute interest in perception, seeking to enhance the viewer’s multisensory experience and changing their perception of reality.”[iii] Their masterful combination of aesthetic beauty, simplicity, minimal lines, and precision often overshadow an overarching principle that the design is fundamentally connected to a single theme. As well, Japanese architects tend to “design for an elevated state of consciousness where one is simultaneously aware of the physicality and the ephemerality conveyed by work.”[iv] A large portion of experimentation occurs in Japanese single-family homes which are world renown as some of the most unique and experimental. Due to a multitude of factors including economics, limited space, and the countries history, this laboratory for experimentation is the reason why so many Japanese houses find their way onto the cover of architectural magazines. In addition to a building code which allows for certain experimentation that is the envy of the rest of the world, the most obscure homes are often those with a thematic design. Thematic architecture is not limited to single family homes in Japan but also possible at all scales from a temporary installation to a shopping complex to a stadium. The theme may be directly obvious, or it may be a subtle gesture which, although appearing simple, has undergone a rigorous refinement process.
Thematic design rejects the notion that form follows function and that the architecture should be designed around an intended program or set of features. Rather, the design is an evolution of an idea that is driven to create architecture that generates an experience and emotional response. The inspiration for themes in architecture can come from anywhere and be nearly anything. Here, themes in architecture are identified in eight categories:
1. Form transformation: the manipulation of basic geometry in solid and void forms through operations, combinations, and aggregate massing to merge, nest, offset, skew, rotate, shift, etc… The Nested Boxes by Sou Fujimoto (House N, 2008) uses a nested theme of open boxes to create a gradation between the inside and the outside of a house by placing a box within a box within a box. This allows the garden to seemingly be both inside and outside and the arrangement of openings within each box to frame views in the shakkei (借景 borrowed scenery) method traditional to Japanese gardens. As well, the openings blur the boundary between interior and exterior as well as public and private realms.[v] This house demonstrates a step beyond the formal configuration of solid and voids within a rectangle box into a more complex theme of nested boxes. The house generates a provocation on what is inside and what is outside and what kinds of spaces are important in or outside a house.
2. Symbolic objects: small things can be represented at the architectural scale to form relations and connections. The Four Leaves Villa by Kentaro Ishida Architects Studio (2018) is a private residence in a forest where the concave and convex roof shapes represent gently twisted leaves which have settled on the building volume. The design uses ruled surfaces to produce organic roof forms and blend harmoniously with the natural landscape.[vi] Through the manipulation of geometry, Ishida has related a small object to human occupation at the larger architectural scale.
3. Microscopic urbanism: the scale of the city can be shrunk to the scale of a site or building. Alleyway Living by Suppose Design Office (House in Buzen, 2009) is predicated on the relationship between building and street. The house in Fukuoka is conceived by breaking the house into several smaller units so that each room is a separate block. In-between the blocks is an open space similar to a roji (路地) or a narrow alleyway. The space between the boxes feels like a room to the children but a street to the adults.[vii] As a microcosm of a city street, the house also provokes a question on how the space in a house relates to the city.
4. Natural elements: the characterization of natural elements in architecture creates a direct connection between occupant and nature. Kyoto Station by Hiroshi Hara (1997) is a large complex which contains a train station, shopping mall, museums, movie theater, hotel, and department store among other facilities. Upon entering the station, one finds themselves in a massive open-air atrium with sloping terraces climbing along either side and a curved roof above. Hara is well known for experimenting with valley architecture which can be traced back to his childhood around Lida City, located in the Japanese Alps where he grew up during World War II surrounded by deep valleys and mountain ranges.[viii] Kyoto Station represents a mountain valley with a cloud canopy above similar to those found around the city and is also metropolis within the city due to the massive scale of the project.
5. Material patterns: the unusual use of materials or patterns as spatial filters to emphasizes a tactile theme. The Chokkura Plaza and Shelter (2006) is an example of Kengo Kuma’s tendency to lighten heavy materials. Oya stone is used in combination with steel plates to make composite structural walls which also function as an aesthetic screen to filter light and views into the space.[ix] The repetitive nature of patterns to create screening elements define loose boundaries between spaces and often create a sense of airiness.
6. Ephemeral Time: the passage of time is often represented through different lighting effects but can also be considered through changing material patinas and natural vegetation. The Echigo-Matsunoyama Natural Science Museum by Tezuka Architects (2003) uses weathering steel on the exterior to appear as a ruin and a massive acrylic window which in winter is completely blocked by piled up snow in a region which can see as much as 23 feet of snowfall.[x] The project operates to show seasonal change and building age.
7. Perceived movement: architecture is a static construction but can include implied movement through sculptural elements. Springtecture H (1997) is a public lavatory built in Singu-cho Park, Hyogo, by Shuhei Endo that can be understood thematically as a ribbon unrolled through the landscape. The architectural concept is an independent spiral which aims to form a linkage between openness and enclosure through continuity. The walls become ceiling and floor altering between interior and exterior.[xi] Although a small building housing a public washroom, the architecture uses a large continuous spiraling ribbon to unify the project and appear in motion.
8. Lightness: minimalism and the concealment of complex details obscures architecture by elevating the structure and dissolving the boundary between inside and outside. The Kanagawa Institute of Technology Kait Workshop by Junya Ishigami Architects (2010) is a glass box building consisting of 305 slender steel columns. The extraordinarily thin columns, although appearing at first random, are specifically placed throughout the floor plate to create different zones within the student studio. The slenderness of the columns makes the building feel light and the extensive glass blurs the boundary between the interior and exterior. Moreover, the columns can be interpreted as a forest which is another reading of the project’s theme.[xii]
When establishing a theme, it is important to focus on a singular design language and leverage simplicity as a constraint. Themes in architecture should be readily understood and not excessively complicated. The theme is the unifying idea and should allow the design process to flow through a series of carefully considered refinements to a satisfactory result.
3.3 Atmosphere
Where the theme is a unifying idea, the atmosphere is the quality which generates an emotional response and a lasting impression. It is the mood, ambience, and aura. It is in many ways a distinctive but intangible quality surrounding a building, room, or space to which we generally identify as the soul of the architecture. The sensual elements and emotional responses from sounds, smells, and touch leading to bemusement, insecurity, gravity, laughter, or relief go beyond the photographic aesthetic of a project. The challenge in architecture at a time focused heavily on the visual medium is to engage the other senses which must be projected and imagined during the design process and not easily grasped until project completion. It is difficult to convey meaning and experience beyond visually what can be rendered, photographed, or drawn, but it is a worthwhile endeavour.
The atmosphere encompasses the visual as well as other senses to create a memorable multi-sensual experience. Atmosphere is an engagement unlike any other which can leave a memorable impact with the occupant. Peter Zumthor described atmosphere as a quality that allows architectural to speak and manages to move someone. He associated atmosphere with the first impression and the feeling associated with it. “We perceive atmosphere through our emotional sensibility — a form of perception that works incredibly quickly….something inside us tells us an enormous amount straight away. We are capable of immediate appreciation, of spontaneous emotional response, or rejecting things in a flash.”[xiii] On speaking of atmosphere, Zumthor identified nine primary attributes and appendices three subsequent attributes for creating atmosphere in architecture:
1. The body of architecture: the material presence of things creates architecture. It is a frame that creates a space with a sensual effect. Materials further allow interaction with architecture through tactility.
2. Material compatibility: different materials react with one another in make unique compositions. Further refinement or processing of materials opens possibilities to make the materials different through sense of presence and weight. How stone or wood is manufactured and finished will be substantially different in atmosphere.
3. The sound of a space: interiors are like large instruments that collect, amplify, and transmit sound. Sounds can be used to create an impression and a mood which is an atmosphere. This allows the architecture to tell us something such as how busy or quiet a place is. Grand central station has a different rhythm than a Japanese garden.
4. The Temperature of space: temperature is physical, a building can make a space warm when it is cold outside or cool when it is hot out. It is also psychological in what you see, feels warm or cold such as cold tones in steel compared with warm hues in wood.
5. Surrounding Objects: people populate their spaces with objects and arrange them to project their personality. The impression and arrangement of furnishings and objects can define the atmosphere of a space. A warm cozy home is significantly different than an office boardroom because of the furniture.
6. Between composure and seduction: architecture involves movement through space. Architecture is a spatial art in designing space but also a temporal art thinking about the way people move in a building. Architecture is experienced over time and can give people a sense of freedom or restriction. It is the difference between being directed along a prescribed path and being able to take a leisurely stroll and being able to explore.
7. Tension between Interior and Exterior: the threshold between inside and outside create an incredible sense of place and a sudden awareness of being enclosed or opened as well as screening what is visible and what will be revealed on the other side.
8. Levels of Intimacy: the proximity and scale of a building, room, or object to a person gives a sense of size and gravity that can be intimidating or reassuring. The contrast between an intimate lobby opening into a large concert hall evokes an atmosphere of grandeur.
9. The light of things: the play of light and shadows in a space and on surfaces that are either dull or sparkle give depth and create contrast. Daylight can be spiritual in quality and emphasize the passage of time.
10. Architecture as surroundings: architecture that becomes part of its surrounding may become an artifact in the future which will have had an impact on people.
11. Coherence: the idea of things coming into their own and finding themselves because they become what they were intended to be.
12. The beautiful form: elegance and beauty is always valued.
There is another significant element to atmosphere in architecture that Zumthor did not speak about. Water is the very origins of life which we are strongly connected to. In architecture, water can be formed in solid, fluid, and vapours states and each creates a different atmosphere. Water plays a significant role in creating atmosphere through plays in light, sound, and tactility. The still reflecting pool at the Barcelona Pavilion by Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe projects a serenity at odds with the cascading sound of falling water by Frank Lloyd Wright or the mystical fog bridge employed by Fujiko Nakaya employing water as a clouded mist.
Atmosphere is not only about how people see architecture but also how they feel and experience space. In Japanese architecture, the concept of atmosphere is often shaped through emptiness which is not the absence of something but the space within which our imaginations can run free. It is the space in which our minds inhabit the architecture, previously written as the white space. The seminal work In Praise of Shadows by Junichiro Tanizaki describes the Japanese toilet as a place of spiritual repose where, “as one sits in the dim light, basking in the faint glow reflected from the shoji, lost in meditation or gazing out at the garden… Where, surrounded by tranquil walls and finely grained wood, one looks out upon blue skies and green leaves.”[xiv] But it is not just the Japanese toilet that evokes an atmosphere. In the perfection of smooth quality concrete, Tando Ando has been able to exhibit both substances in concrete and abstraction in light. The dramatic contrast of the light piercing through the interior of the Church of Light draws great symbolism but also through the simplicity of a large interior box, it creates a specific atmosphere where people can project their minds into the empty space above.
A large portion to the success of thematic architecture in Japan is tied to an understanding of atmosphere and the creation of space not as a volume but as an experience. When creating atmosphere, it is important to acknowledge that one atmosphere does not exist without simultaneously including contrast. To have dramatic lighting requires deep shadows. The proper generation of atmosphere will balance contrasting elements to achieve a successful result. Atmosphere is about creating architecture that speaks to the occupant and manages to move them. June Aoki said, “When most people encounter architecture from within, they feel the architecture rather than seeing it. So this means that the atmospheric quality of space is very important for architecture. If you change the feeling of the space, it will be different architecture even if the architecture has the same diagram or composition.”[xv] Atmosphere is as much the first impression as the temporal experience and a lasting impression. Although light and shadow are perhaps the most significant influences on atmosphere, materiality, scale, and massing also play a role and sound, temperature and intimacy are rarely exploited but equally valuable for consideration.
3.4 Narrative
The narrative is what connects the occupant to the architecture and gives the architecture meaning. Often it is post-rationalized at the end of design and not always core to the design process; however, the narrative should not be the end product. “Narrative thinking is a design attitude. It supplements the ‘traditional’ design process by enabling designers to imagine different perspectives.”[xvi] The narrative shapes the experience into story and as a process of creation it gives meaning to the project. It further allows the designer to engage with stakeholders and emphasize a meaningful connection to the architecture and site which is critical for conveying meaning. Narrative evolves from an introspective exploration of the site context and history combined with a spatial exploitation of theme. The interpretation of place and research on contextual history form the basis of the narrative’s origin but it is the theme and desired atmosphere that drives it forward in the design process.
The narrative calls to attention space and occupation through material, movement, lighting, and events. In a similar way that a director imagines scenes to a film which gradually reveal a story scene by scene, the architect also creates a world-building process and reveals the narrative through moments. Architecture is a spatial and temporal experience, and the sequence of spaces or actions should be constructed to provoke an emotional experience. Architecture must construct not only the space but also the time in which it is inhabited. This fourth dimension in the design process is informed by the temporal aspect of moving through and occupying space. The flow of time may not be noticeable, or it may be emphasized, such as through an awareness of seasonal changes and the passage of daylight. Well composed materials and spatial transitions also aid the consciousness awareness of time. Narrative is, in many aspects a time-space and implores architecture to be considered in an ephemeral meaning.
A narrative driven design process is one where the designer is effectively presenting a story of creation. As such, the design narrative is often a concise story crafted at the beginning of the project or as a palimpsest of pervious notions and revelations found within the history of the site, people, and culture. It is about identifying relationships between people and things and can bring to light richness and depth that allows for metaphysical exploration. In creating a narrative, it is important to focus on telling the process of creation and to highlight the major elements that derive from the theme to create an emotionally charged atmosphere so that the meaning of the architecture is clear. A narrative can be explained through messaging, a system of communicating a point or gesture and storytelling, the act of recounting events.[xvii] The architectural narrative can be identified by five attributes:
1. Iconographic and semiotic messaging: using signs as a means of communication. Cultural symbols as a system of representation use pictorial art as a technique for recording stories or past events using images and text. Iconography is often used as a surface ornamentation because it offers explicit sources of information independent of form.
2. Symbolic messaging: representation of elements through symbols and codes. The establishment of a system to indirectly exchange ideas requires a shared heritage and sometimes uses thought-provoking metaphors.
3. Historic sequence: a palimpsest of visible layers recounting history such as past geological and environmental processes as well as historic construction which has been successively demolished and built upon.
4. Spatial structure: form generation by the arrangement of objects in space. The form is characterized by a perceived evolution of static shapes implying change. It is common in architecture, but not limited to, the process of form generation in massing studies.
5. Cinematic choreography: illustrating movement and progression through a sequence of space in time along a plot filled with events. The story follows a character’s personal experience which is both spatial and temporal.
Architecture narrates stories and events in time as it unfolds sequentially through geometry and space as well as through the ability to encapsulate a memorable experience for people moving, occupying, and forming their own stories. By choosing and combining materials, establishing the play of light and shadow, as well as sounding acoustics, architects embed their messages in structures that individuals may see, hear, and feel through spatial choreography.[xviii] The layered insertion of semiotic or symbolic motifs on surfaces with the play of temporal changes further emphasizes the narrative experience. The architectural narrative should emphasize the importance of storytelling at the beginning of the design process. The narrative can then be used through the design process to order the spatial experience and give meaning to the project so that it results in a well-rounded execution and avoid post-rationalization. The ultimate success of the narrative is being able to connect with the architectural theme through specific moments and indicate how different spaces give rise to memorable and impactful moments charged with atmosphere. Lastly, the narrative should give meaning to the occupant as an understandable reason for the architecture to exist.
References
[i] North, Alissa. Operative Landscapes Building Communities through Public Space. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2013.
[ii] North, Alissa. Operative Landscapes Building Communities through Public Space. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2013.
[iii] Brownell, Blaine Erickson. Matter in the Floating World Conversations with Leading Japanese Architects and Designers. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011.
[iv] Brownell, Blaine Erickson. Matter in the Floating World Conversations with Leading Japanese Architects and Designers. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2011.
[v] Nuijsink, Cathelijine. How to Make a Japanese House. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2012.
[vi] “Four Leaves Villa / KIAS.” ArchDaily. ArchDaily, May 14, 2021. https://www.archdaily.com/908866/four-leaves-villa-kias.
[vii] Nuijsink, Cathelijine. How to Make a Japanese House. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2012.
[viii] Bognar, B., & Hara, H. (2001). Hiroshi Hara: The floating world of his architecture. West Sussex: Wiley-Academy.
[ix] Bognár Botond, and Kengo Kuma. Material Immaterial: the New Work of Kengo Kuma. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2009.
[x] Ugc. “Echigo-Matsunoyama Museum of Natural Science.” Atlas Obscura. Atlas Obscura, March 23, 2010. https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/echigo-matsunoyama-museum-of-natural-science.
[xi] Brownell, B. (2011). Matter in the floating world: Conversations with leading Japanese architects and designers.
[xii] Ruiz, Victor. “KAIT Workshop: Flexibility, Light, Inspiration.” More with less, August 17, 2016. https://morewithlessdesign.com/en/kait-workshop/.
[xiii] Zumthor, Peter. Peter Zumthor — Atmospheres Architectural Environments — Surrounding Objects. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2006.
[xiv] Tanizaki Jun’ichirō, Thomas J. Harper, and Edward Seidensticker. In Praise of Shadows. London: Vintage Classics, 2019.
[xv] Brownell, B. (2011). Matter in the floating world: Conversations with leading Japanese architects and designers.
[xvi] Gerards, Sebastiaan, and Sylvian De Bleeckere. “Narrative Thinking in Architectural Education.” Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium, n.d.
[xvii] Qadir, Nadia. “Spatial Effects: Narrative Structure in Architecture,” 2011.
[xviii] Qadir, Nadia. “Spatial Effects: Narrative Structure in Architecture,” 2011.
