4. Impact of COVID-19 in India

The pandemic has had several impacts on the citizens of the country and the nation as a whole, this section focuses on the repercussions of COVID-19 in India, in terms of socio-economic factors, employment, socio-cultural factors, education, and environmental aspects of India during the pandemic.

4.1 Socio-Economic Impact of COVID-19

Since the pandemic hit India, in 2020, the country and the government has taken several decisions to reduce the impact of the pandemic, these include social distancing norms, lockdowns, self-isolation, travel bans and restrictions. There has been an impact on all economic sectors, led to a reduction in workforce, job loss and disruption of livelihood. From environment to education to tourism, no sector has been spared. Due to school closure, there has been a disruption of normal life of children. There is an increased demand for not only medical supplies, food sector and a decreased demand for commodities and manufactured products.

GDP and Growth of the Economy: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in its recent projection of India’s real GDP growth pegged it at 10.5% whereas International Monetary Fund (IMF) pegged it at 12.5% for FY22 in April 2021.[i] The government has released data showing that India’s economy has contracted in the past year, and is at a 40-year low. There is growing poverty, rural unemployment, decrease in wages, and there has been a need for urgent government intervention.[ii]

IMF has revised India’s output growth forecast for next year from 11.5% to 12.5%. There is also a prediction that GST collections will fall below Rs 1 trillion in July.[iii] On the other hand, they were at a record high in April at Rs 1.41 trillion and fell down to Rs. 1.02 trillion in May. [iv] There has been an impact on real estate and house prices, and demand has crashed along with the average house price being expected to stagnate this year. [v]

Historically, pandemics have accentuated the impact of socio-economic inequalities, and COVID-19 is no exception:

Greater financial difficulties were associated with significantly greater odds of non-accessibility to healthcare (12 times), inappropriate health provisions (11 times) as well as discontinuity of care (15 times).[vi] Greater financial stress which has been exacerbated by the pandemic due to unemployment and job uncertainty predicted poorer mental health, higher anxiety, depression, and stress.[vii]

The lockdown further leads to a stress on the supply chains in the country and has further affected most informal sectors and daily wage workers. Due to the restrictions set in place for the movement of only essential services, many e-commerce websites stopped selling non-essentials and decided to only focus on critical supplies.[viii]

Stock Markets: Even the stock markets experienced a significant drop, with the Central government encouraging local governments to adopt more targeted approach to soften the economic blow due to the disastrous second wave. The Nomura India Business Resumption Index (NIBRI) that tracks high-frequency economic indicators fell down rapidly during May 2021. [ix]

Manufacturing: Even the manufacturing sector saw a crash during the second wave of the pandemic with March 2021 IHS Markit India Manufacturing Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) at 55.4 from 57.5 from February 2021 and with a small improvement to 55.5 in April 2021. [x] India’s service sector witnessed a fall as it was at a three-month low in April due to reduced operations and business closures. The Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) declined to 54 in April from 54.6 in March. [xi] Even the insurance sector saw a massive rise in claims as the COVID-19 cases saw an increase. As per data by the General Insurance Council (GIC), the insurance industry registered 10.07 lakh claims worth Rs 14,738 crore until April 7, 2021. [xii]

Some groups have been more vulnerable during the pandemic like households with single women, people with disabilities and those with people from transgender communities.[xiii]

The second wave even hit the rural economy as the cases spread to the villages and towns and pressurized the fragile healthcare sector. This affected the agricultural supply chains, the rural demand and consumption because the Marginal Propensity to Consume is higher in rural areas.[xiv]

Food Production, Prices and Insecurity: Not only in terms of medical infrastructure and demand, supply chains across the nation were impacted severely. Like, agricultural supply chains and harvest were affected because migrant labourers returned home as the lockdown set in. This included the issue of transportation of the harvest because of the government-imposed travel restrictions. Poultry and milk farmers also needed more support as the issues of market access and connectivity were widely prevalent. [xv]

The supply of food was disrupted to a greater extent when COVID-19 cases are higher on a state and local level. The correlation between COVID-19 exposure and supply disruption disappears when we instead define exposure at the district-level and remains small and not statistically significant when we exploit only within-state variation. These results suggest that the strong relationship between supply disruptions and COVID-19 exposure is not driven by local reactions. Instead, the pattern of results is more consistent with supply disruptions being driven by state-led reactions, with states with more COVID-19 cases reacting more aggressively[xvi]

Consumer food prices in most urban areas have risen, driven by increased frictions in the supply chain in the form of limited availability of labor, higher transportation costs and uncertainty around logistics[xvii]

Under the national lockdown, people in urban areas were more likely to be vulnerable to food insecurity than those in rural areas. This is true for especially those, who were dependent on wage employment. Meanwhile, in rural areas, the collapse in producer prices and farmers’ difficulty in selling their produce implies lower prices and greater availability of a variety of foods[xviii]

Some of the largest food and beverage producers in India are located in the Western and Central provinces of the country — Maharashtra and Punjab each produce 24.14% of the country’s food and beverages, with Gujarat producing 20.69% and Uttar Pradesh producing 17.24%.[xix] Given that some of the largest producers of food are in the Western zone of the country, this will have significant economic implications for the farmers in these regions. This is because many have not been able to successfully transport their goods due to lockdowns and restrictions on travel, it is possible that the livelihoods of some of these rural workers may be put in jeopardy as a result.

Poverty: Nearly 75 million people fell into poverty in India as per the Pew Research Centre which led to a 60% rise in global poverty. [xx] Almost 32 million Indians could no longer be considered as middle class as per the Pew Research Centre.[xxi]

Tourism: The impact was felt in the tourism sector equally severely; with visas suspended and tourist destinations being closed down, the tourism value-chain suffered extreme losses and it is expected that the industry will be impacted for a several years to come with slow recovery.[xxii]

4.2 Employment

Due to different restrictions and lockdowns being imposed across the country during the first and second wave and with cases blowing out of proportion, businesses, commercial establishments and several other services were either shut down or were turned into work from home jobs except the essential services and front-line workers as defined by the government. Unemployment has been on the rise, entering double digits in May 2021, there has been a loss of jobs, decrease in wages and loss of income and livelihoods. [xxiii]

A report and survey by the Hunger Watch Report has shown that unemployment persisted for six months after the lockdown last year in India, resulting in a drop in income level across all informal sectors. According to the survey, more than 27% of the households surveyed had no source of income six months after the lockdown was implemented. About 43% of respondents had no income in April-May [xxiv]Only about 3% of those who had no income in April-May had returned to pre-lockdown income levels in October, while 56% of those who had no income in April-May appeared to have no job even in October.[xxv] 71% said that their consumption of nutritious foods had deteriorated[xxvi]

The economy of the country contracted by 7.3% in 2020–21 which was the worst performance for India in over four decades.[xxvii] The unemployment levels in the country for the month of May were over 10% where post the second wave, the levels saw an improvement with the rural areas faring better than the urban after the country saw relaxation in restrictions. [xxviii]The rate fell down to 8.7%. Data from the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) suggested that urban unemployment fell to 9.7% in the week of June 13 where the monthly rate for May stood at 14.7%.[xxix] The monthly rural employment stood at 10.63% in May whereas it dropped to 8.23% in the week ending June 13. [xxx] It must be noted that the rise in unemployment was lower compared to 2020, when the pandemic began, and lockdowns were imposed. [xxxi] The Labor Force Participation rate is the other reason for unemployment as it remained almost stagnant where in April it stood at 39.98% and around May end only slightly increased to 40.1%. [xxxii] India’s Debt to GDP ratio also shot up to 90% as per the International Monetary Fund (IMF) leading to an impact on the government’s fiscal position. [xxxiii]

Figure: Unemployment Rate in India during the pandemic

As in the figure above, the data for unemployment by the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE)[xxxiv] depicts that the levels were the highest during the months of April and May 2020, reaching 23.52% and 21.73%, this was when the pandemic had struck the country and restrictions and lockdowns were imposed. But, with the easing of restrictions in the later months, the rate fell down. Eventually, when the second wave hit India, the rates started to increase drastically with them being 7.97% in April 2021 and later 11.9% in May 2021.

Figure: Annual Real GDP growth (in %age)

The above graph depicts the annual Real GDP Growth in %age for the years 2019, 2020 and 2021, i.e. before the pandemic in 2019, when the pandemic hit us — in the first wave in 2020, and the second wave in 2021. The data has been taken from the International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook.[xxxv] The three countries taken into consideration here are China, the United States of America and India. China and the United States are here to understand how the economy of India has performed in comparison to the other countries.

In 2019, the GDP growth in all the countries was positive, with China at 5.822%, India at 4.062% and the lowest in the United States of America at 2.161%.

Further, it can be seen that the GDP contracted the most in 2020 when the pandemic damaged the economies in most countries and stood at (-)7.965% for India, (-)3.505% for the United States of America and 2.27% for China because of a sudden shock to the economy owing to the pandemic.

For 2021, the GDP growth has been estimated at 12.546% for India which is the highest among the emerging and advanced economies but this was before the second wave struck the country and led to fresh restrictions and significant rise in cases. For China and the United States of America as well, we can an increase in the GDP growth rate at 8.437% and 6.386% because of economic recovery.

4.3 Supply Chain

COVID-19 disrupted the supply chains of almost all sectors, here we will analyses the response of the states towards the supply chains of food, medical supplies, hospital beds, doctors and oxygen.

4.3.1 Medical Equipment

The Commerce Ministry has stated that oxygen production has increased from 5,700 MT per day in August 2020 to 9,446 MT per day in May 2021. The Ministry noted that the production capacity also increased from 6,817 MT per day to 7,314 MT per day, and capacity utilization has also gone up from 84% to 129% during this period.[xxxvi]

Northern States

• Uttarakhand — The central government increased Uttarakhand’s oxygen quota and allowed the state to use medical oxygen that was generated in the state itself.[xxxvii] The state government also requested the assistance of industrialists residing there, under CSR (corporate social responsibility) initiatives, such as urging Mahindra to donate 1,000 oxygen cylinders, 1,000 oxygen concentrators, 10 medical oxygen generators, 500 BiPAPs and 500 CPAP monitors among other equipment.[xxxviii]

Central States

• Madhya Pradesh — The state received 656 MT from the Central government, through special trains run by the Indian Railways.[xxxix] The government of Madhya Pradesh increased production of Remdesivir in the state and invited quotations from global manufacturers for drugs like Injection Amphotericin B (Liposomal), Tab. Posaconazole and Injection Posaconazole.[xl]
• Uttar Pradesh — The state government offered an incentive to those industries producing medical equipment by approving a scheme to offer a subsidy of 25% or Rs 10 crore (whichever was lower) of the total expenditure.[xli] The state government also invited bids for 350 oxygen plants to prepare for the 3rd wave.[xlii]
• Chhattisgarh — Chhattisgarh started producing 388.8 MT (megatons) of liquid oxygen daily, not only meeting their own daily demand (160 MT), but also producing an excess (228.8 MT), which they were able to transport to other states like Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.[xliii]

Eastern States

• Bihar — The central government assigned Bihar a quota of 194 MT medical oxygen per day.[xliv] The state government recruited 1000 extra doctors to handle the 2nd wave.[xlv] They also flew in 10,000 testing kits from Pune.[xlvi]
• Jharkhand — The state government implemented plans to increase oxygen beds from 250 to 10,000[xlvii] and launched project ‘Sanjeevani Vaahan’, vehicles that would provide oxygen cylinders to hospitals around the clock[xlviii]. Jharkhand also received 90 ventilators, 90 oxygen cylinders, 150 oxygen concentrators, 3200 Remdesivir vials and 212 BiPAP machines from foreign aid. [xlix] The above was allocated to Jharkhand by the central government and were part of the donations received from the UK, Ireland, Romania, Russia, UAE, US, Taiwan, Kuwait, France, Thailand, Germany and many other countries to help India fight the 3rd wave.[l]
• Odisha — The state government added 18,000 oxygen cylinders to their present stock of 27,000 and bought 20,000 B-type oxygen cylinders and 10,000 jumbo cylinders from the Centre.[li] They also decided to offer incentives to manufacturers of medical oxygen and drew up plans for 11 oxygen plans in industrially backward districts, with an investment of Rs 70–80 lakh per unit.[lii] The central government supplied 150–160 MT of oxygen to the state per day.[liii]
• West Bengal — By May, the state government was distributing upwards of 400,000 PPE kits, 300,000 N95 masks, 2,000,000 ply disposable masks, 772,958 green masks(reusable), 150,000 gloves (in pairs) and 100,000 sanitizers in all their districts, daily.[liv] To facilitate provision of oxygen cylinders, the state government has a dedicated website that gives the details of oxygen suppliers according to the district. With the increase in cases of Mucormycosis related to COVID, the state government also issued a guideline for the drug Amphotericin to be sold directly to the hospitals/nursing homes only and not to individual patients.[lv] This order would help regulate the supply of Amphotericin and prevent hoarding of the drug. To ensure uninterrupted supply of oxygen, a State Monitoring Committee on Supply, Delivery and Use of Medical Oxygen at Patient Level was formed, who would routinely visit hospitals to deal with issues regarding oxygen supply and take measures accordingly.[lvi]

North-Eastern States

• Assam — The state government also announced a policy that offered free power to all oxygen plants.[lvii] It also imported 50,000 PPE kits directly from China[lviii] and also became the medical oxygen hub for all north-eastern states, by procuring liquid oxygen from outside the region and storing it in facilities accessible to all other north-eastern states.[lix]
• Arunachal Pradesh — The state government invited quotations from oxygen cylinder suppliers to deal with the oxygen shortage in the state.[lx]
• Manipur — The state government requested the help of the private sector in arranging for necessary medical equipment.[lxi]
• Mizoram — Mizoram received 150 oxygen cylinders from Taiwan and 60 oxygen concentrators from Ireland.[lxii] Lunglei, a district in Mizoram, also received 6 oxygen concentrators from MOFA (Medical Oxygen for All Foundation), New Delhi, as well as 1500 PPE kits, 1500 N-95 masks and 100 oximeters from Vision IAS Academy in Delhi.[lxiii]
• Nagaland — In May, the state government said that they have 1588 types of oxygen available in the state, with 980 cylinders at Chumoukedima and another 800 estimated to reach the state from Ahmedabad.[lxiv] Oxygen plants at Kohima, Mokokchung and Dimapur also became operational with other plants were in the process of being set up.[lxv] The state government also made available 1500 oxygen cylinders for its COVID-19 health facilities.[lxvi]

Over 70 plants around the country have been mobilized in the month of May, 2021 to rush medical oxygen to states facing massive shortage after a surge in COVID-19 patients experiencing breathlessness due to a resurgence of the virus. [lxvii] This centralized oxygen supply plan maps out oxygen sources and supply networks for Maharashtra, Gujarat, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Chandigarh, Haryana, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[lxviii]

There is a mismatch between the states that produce oxygen and the states that consume it. One-third of the total production is concentrated in East India, while 60% of the demand for oxygen is in the North and South of the country, which results in transportation challenges.[lxix] Transportation has been severely restricted as a result of the pandemic which has shown that there have been chokepoints in which oxygen supplies either cannot get to their intended destination quick enough, or they are simply unable to reach their destination due to local lockdown related restrictions and obstacles.

Prior to the centralized oxygen supply plan for India, there were numerous cases where areas with high population density had hospitals which came close to, or indeed did, run out of oxygen supplies for the patients. In Uttar Pradesh some hospitals even put “oxygen out of stock” signs. Smaller medical facilities and hospitals were hit worse by the lack of oxygen supply than the major hospitals, which spelled worse fortune for rural areas.[lxx]

Some organized criminals have used the pandemic to scam individuals and health organizations, and it is quite possible that this could continue post-pandemic as well. The New Delhi police alone have arrested more than 210 people on allegations of cheating, hoarding, criminal conspiracy or fraud in connection with COVID-19 related scams, recently. Similarly, the police in Uttar Pradesh have arrested 160 people.[lxxi] However, this new centralized supply plan for oxygen has already been successful to some extent in supplying the right amount of oxygen to the areas which needed it the most. This assumption is made on the basis that the supply chain does not have any weak links, and it is possible that in future a weak link in the chain may arise.

4.3.2 COVID-19 Facilities

The Western administrative zone has 1 bed for every 576 people[lxxii]

The Central administrative zone has 1 bed for every 795 people[lxxiii]

The Northern administrative zone has 1 bed for every 611 people[lxxiv]

The Southern administrative zone has 1 bed for every 358 people[lxxv]

The North Eastern administrative zone has 1 bed for every 999 people[lxxvi]

On an average in the country as a whole, there is 1 bed for every 637 people[lxxvii]

In the Western administrative zone, there are 33 health workers for every 100,000 people[lxxviii]

In the Central administrative zone, there are 27.3 health workers for every 100,000 people[lxxix]

In the Northern administrative zone, there are 33 health workers for every 100,000 people[lxxx]

In the whole of India, there are 29.1 health workers for every 100,000 people[lxxxi]

Northern States

• Uttarakhand — The Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) set up two 500 bed facilities.[lxxxii] The state government also converted 300 Ayush hospitals into 24x7 COVID care units.[lxxxiii] The state government also made available 5156 beds without oxygen, 6498 beds with oxygen, 1531 ICU beds and 757 ventilators.[lxxxiv]

Central States

• Chhattisgarh — The state government reopened the quarantine centers that had been used in the first wave.[lxxxv] 11 testing facilities were established, with daily testing increasing to 70,000 from 22,000 per day.[lxxxvi] The state government also established 8 dedicated COVID hospitals with 1750 beds in total and 22 dedicated COVID health centers with 1586 beds in total.[lxxxvii]
• Madhya Pradesh — The state government established 1715 fever clinics around the state for COVID-19 testing.[lxxxviii] The state government also offered private hospitals extra space to increase facilities for COVID-19 patients.[lxxxix]
• Uttar Pradesh — The state government converted 45 hospitals into COVID-19 facilities, with the chief minister making additional 100 bed facilities available for use.[xc] Ambulance rates were also fixed by the state government, to ensure that everyone was able to make use of the service.[xci]

Eastern States

• Bihar — The state government set up 504 COVID-19 care centers to deal with the caseload.[xcii]
• Jharkhand — The state government set up 578 COVID-19 care centers to deal with the pandemic, which included 9374 beds without oxygen support, 9392 beds with oxygen support, 728 ICU beds with ventilators and 2230 beds without ventilators.[xciii]
• Odisha — The state government has 7 dedicated COVID Health Centers, with a cumulative 926 beds, of which 422 are oxygen supported. The state government also has 26 COVID dedicated hospitals, with a total of 4470 beds, of which 2786 are oxygen supported.[xciv]
• West Bengal — The state has 620 COVID hospitals, which includes those run by the government, private hospitals and satellite facilities run by hospitals and safe homes and has a total COVID bed capacity of 39126.[xcv] The state government also has a dedicated website to provide ambulances as and when needed by the public.[xcvi]

North-Eastern States

• Assam — There are a total of 283 dedicated COVID Health Centers in the state, which include both government and private hospitals.[xcvii] The state government also gave ambulance status to all those vehicles carrying Nitrogen, Argon and Oxygen.[xcviii]
• Manipur — There are 12 dedicated COVID-19 facilities in the state with around 200 beds in total for COVID-19 patients.[xcix]
• Meghalaya — There are 29 COVID facilities in the state, mostly situated in Shillong, the state capital, with a total of 54 beds without oxygen support, 959 with oxygen support and 138 ICU beds, making the cumulative number of beds to 1151.[c]
• Mizoram — The state government has provided for 21 COVID-19 care facilities with a total of 390 beds.[ci]
• Nagaland — There are 12 COVID care facilities available, with 581 beds available in total, 6 of which are oxygen supported and 50 of which are ICU beds. These facilities have 17,568 PPE kits and 25,849 N95 masks available.[cii]
• Tripura — The state government has provided 48 COVID-19 facilities, with a total of 3470 beds.[ciii]
• Sikkim — The state government has provided 21 COVID-19 care facilities, of which 10 are temporary/converted facilities.[civ]

The Western region of India has a mixed record in terms of the number of hospital beds that it is able to provide. For example, the Western administrative zone (which contains Mumbai) has more than the national average of beds. It must be kept in mind that urban areas such as Mumbai and Delhi will tend to struggle with hospital bed shortages due to the surges of COVID-19 cases in urban areas relative to rural areas[cv]

Despite urban areas being short of hospital beds due to their greater exposure to acute rises in cases of COVID-19, rural areas have such a short supply of hospital beds that usually they are just as, if not affected to a greater extent by such shortages

The Indian rural health care system is a three-tier system comprising Sub-Centers, Primary Health Centers (PHC), and Community Health Centers (CHC). There is currently a shortfall in healthcare facilities: 18% at the Sub-Centre level, 22% at the PHC level and 30% at the CHC level (as of March 2018). Although the number of facilities has increased over the years, the workforce availability is substantially below the recommended levels as suggested by the World Health Organization.[cvi]

The Western portion of the country as a whole has a total of 31.1 health workers for every 100,000 people in India, better than the average for the country but it does not mean that the Western half of the country is better suited to dealing with the COVID crisis.

Although it means that there are, overall, more medical practitioners to help cope with the more severe COVID-19 cases, as urban areas such as Mumbai and Delhi have had larger surges of cases due to the fact that they are urban areas, hence have a larger chance of transmission between individuals.

The State focus has been on curative care, whereas poor infrastructure and poor coordination between the line departments makes it difficult to tackle public health emergencies such as COVID-19. The health care system is not adequate or prepared to contain COVID19 transmission in the rural areas, especially in many northern Indian States because of the shortage of doctors, hospital beds and equipment, especially in the densely populated underserved states.[cvii]

The state governments should focus on creating a centralized system/website where information about bed availability and contact details for the COVID-19 care centers is readily available. While the central government does have a website that makes the above information available to the public, it only does so for the major cities in the country, which creates an information gap. To improve upon this, the central government should organize the resources by state and district, so that everyone can make use of the facility.

The state governments should maintain the COVID-19 facilities and health infrastructure that they set up for the 2nd wave to ensure they have the necessary infrastructure to deal with the 3rd wave.

4.4 Socio-cultural

The pandemic has led to several socio-cultural impacts as well with a rise in hate towards minority groups and the vulnerable communities in terms of religion, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, etc.

During the pandemic another issue that the government had to face was hesitancy the citizens such as non-cooperation by the citizens to get tested or to isolate. The citizens have not disclosed the travel history and given the complete details when asked by the government due to the societal fear. Along with this, there have been cases of extreme hostility against the frontline workers like doctors, nurses and other healthcare workers. The fear and uncertainty instilled in people and calling these professionals responsible for anything happening to the family members or during the treatment has led to several conflicts and creating a worrying scenario. There have been instances of harassment and attack towards them. At times, healthcare workers have also been asked to vacate their houses because they were more susceptible to the virus. This was done not just by the landlords but also by the neighbours and society members. [cviii]

The pandemic led to immense problems for those from lower income groups and communities. There were several groups and NGOs involved in community service, supporting them but even they were hackled and abused. [cix] Along with this, during the lockdown was imposed in the country, people engaged in panic buying and stocking up of grocery and other essential items resulting in shortage which affected the entire society. [cx]

The World Economic Forum (WEF’s) Global Gender Gap Report 2021 estimates that the time it will take to close the global gender gap — in health, education, politics and economics — has increased 99.5 years to 135.6 years in India.[cxi] India has also slipped 28 places in the WEF’s Global Gender Gap Index to 140 of the 156 countries that were ranked. [cxii]India’s female workforce is amongst the lowest in the world, at 22.3% and the pandemic has further increased unemployment which in turn has increased the gender gap in India[cxiii]

During the pandemic; widespread illiteracy, poverty, open defecation, etc. are certain health and social factors can also add to the woes of an already aggravated situation as it can worsen the outbreak even further. This includes widespread misconceptions, superstitions and misinformation which regularly made rounds on social media. The pandemic also saw several violations of the regulations set in place due to religious and political proceedings.[cxiv] The government has failed at resolving these issues including vaccine take-up as well. The government has only be focusing on the supply, availability and diplomacy of vaccines and ignoring the hesitancy of vaccine administration among citizens. As per the COVID-19 Symptom Survey (CSS) in India by Facebook, there is around 28.7% of vaccine hesitancy across states and Union territories. This is even more prevalent in remote areas with limited connectivity and in rural areas. It is important to achieve universal vaccination and to uphold human rights. The need of the hour is community engagement, trust building measures, and there have also been demands to invoke the Compulsory Vaccination Act of 1892 for making vaccination compulsory by law. [cxv]

The pandemic resulted in an increase in domestic violence, abuse and threats. The vulnerable groups and communities became more marginalized to violence. [cxvi] This also included a severe impact on the mental health and well-being of individuals.

4.5 Education

The pandemic led to school closure and the beginning of virtual learning which impacted students coming from all walks of life, in both rural and urban areas. About 320 million learners have been affected in India and there are numerous students who have not got an opportunity to attend offline university and have not stepped foot in college since March 2020. With learning turning virtual, not all institutions could adapt to online education and the transition was inefficient, leading to a shutdown for some of them.[cxvii] Both, students and teachers had to transition to this new normal and it was equally challenging for everyone to familiarize themselves with the new digital setup. Even the parents found it difficult to switch to digital gadgets during a time when incomes were lower and they could not provide for the digital gadgets needed to conduct online learning.[cxviii] About 1.5 million schools have closed down and education has become digital where only 24% of the households have access to the Internet in urban areas and in rural areas only 4% households.[cxix] About 286 million students from pre-primary to secondary levels have been affected as per UNICEF.[cxx] Along with these issues, the budget for digital e-learning has been slashed from Rs. 604 crores to Rs. 460 crores in 2020–21. [cxxi] Along with the issue of the internet, frequent power cuts and electricity are an issue that the students and teachers had to grapple with. As per the 2017–18 survey by the Ministry of Rural Development, only 47% of households in India receive more than 12 hours of electricity and more than 36% of the schools operate without electricity.[cxxii] Other barriers included budgetary constraints, unavailability of digital devices and gadgets and its increased expense, lack of technical know-how and support, lack of training for the teachers as well as students. This also included lack of technical infrastructure to conduct the online classes. [cxxiii]

The pandemic proved that online teaching is not a perfect substitute of offline learning. This is largely because offline teaching helps develop interpersonal communication skills, social skills that are needed for holistic growth of an individual. [cxxiv] The pandemic saw a massive growth for EdTech companies as for Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), India has emerged as the second biggest market in the world.[cxxv] Another problem that the teachers faced was that they had to switch to other alternative jobs as they either lost their jobs or saw a cut in their salaries. [cxxvi] The students struggled because in government schools in India as the mid-day meal provision was beneficial for several students which post COVID-19 led to issues like malnourishment and deprivation of nutritious meals. [cxxvii]

Whenever the situation permits, the transition to school-based learning will require a well formulated roadmap to ensure it is safe. This will include social distanced teaching and staggered presence of students. Although, this has given an opportunity for rebuilding the educational infrastructure of the country as it increased the digital use, digital literacy, ease in distance learning improved use of electronic media and more information sharing than before.[cxxviii] It helped innovate, improve learning and transmission of knowledge. This was aided by the move towards blended mode of learning, introduction of webinars, virtual classrooms, digital exams and technology.[cxxix]

4.6 Environmental Impact

The European Space agency revealed a significant reduction in Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) levels in the Indian atmosphere which are generally emitted into the atmosphere through vehicular exhausts, power plants and industrial sites.[cxxx]

Articles and reports in dailies and other electronic media also reveal the improvement in the quality of a number of major rivers in India including Ganga, Cauvery, Sutlej and Yamuna. The primary cause is lack of industrial effluents entering the rivers due to the lockdown situation[cxxxi].

As per experts, due to excessive pollution across cities in the country, the impact of COVID-19 could be more since the lungs have been weakened leading to more impact.[cxxxii] There are several ailments that result from air pollution like asthma, diabetes, etc. which are co-morbidities, leading to high risks to COVID-19. As per a paper, chronic exposure to particulate matter is likely linked to approximately 15% of the worldwide COVID-19 related deaths. [cxxxiii]Although there is only preliminary research undertaken but it has been concluded that with better and improved air quality, the impacts of the pandemic might reduce. Pollution must be reduced once lockdowns and restrictions are lifted. [cxxxiv]Another preliminary paper by the World Bank found that in India about 1% increase in long-term exposure to particulate matters leads to an increase in COVID-19 related deaths by almost 5.7% points. Apart from the public health measures, certain urgent interventions like promoting cleaner fuel sources to reduce the pollution. [cxxxv]

In the rural areas, there has been a 46% increase in the biomedical waste between April and May 2021. [cxxxvi] India recorded 12 out of the 15 warmest years between 2006 and 2020, leading to the warmest decade. [cxxxvii]During the pandemic, the use of single-use masks, PPE kits, gloves, wipes are on the rise and this has further led to an increase in the use of plastics. [cxxxviii] There have been several disasters and threats to the environment because of not paying heed to the norms, regulations and poor safety standards.[cxxxix]

5. India’s COVID-19 Response

References

[i] Srivastava, D. K. “India’s Economic Challenges Resurface amidst the Second Wave of COVID-19.” EY, EY, 26 Apr. 2021, www.ey.com/en_in/tax/economy-watch/india-economic-challenges-resurface-amidst-the-second-wave-of-covid-19.

[ii] Inani, Rohit, and IndiaSpend. “How Second Wave of COVID-19 Has Decimated India’s Rural Economy-India News , Firstpost.” Firstpost, 7 June 2021, www.firstpost.com/india/how-second-wave-of-covid-19-has-decimated-indias-rural-economy-9689231.html. ; Bose, Indrishka. “Indian Economy Contracts 7.3% in FY21, Worst in 40 Years.” Https://Www.outlookindia.com/Outlookmoney/, 31 May 2021, www.outlookindia.com/outlookmoney/expenses/indian-economy-contracts-73-in-fy21-worst-in-40-years-7494.

[iii] ibid

[iv] Staff, Scroll. “GST Collection in June Falls to Rs 92,849 Crore, Slides under Rs 1 Trillion after Eight Months.” Scroll.in, Scroll.in, 6 July 2021, scroll.in/latest/999456/gst-collection-in-june-falls-to-rs-92849-crore-slides-under-rs-1-trillion-after-eight-months. ; Seth, Dilasha. “GST Collections Fall to an 8-Month Low in May; Exceed Rs 1 Trillion-Mark.” Business Standard, Business-Standard, 5 June 2021, www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/gst-collections-fall-to-an-8-month-low-may-exceed-rs-1-trillion-mark-121060501171_1.html.

[v] ETMarkets.com. “Sectors That Will Be the Worst Affected by Covid 2.0 — ​Riding the Wave.” The Economic Times, 25 May 2021, economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/sectors-that-will-be-the-worst-affected-by-covid-2–0/covid-and-indias-economic-growth/slideshow/82929943.cms.

[vi] Raman, Rajiv, et al. “Impact on Health and Provision of Healthcare Services during the COVID-19 Lockdown in India: a Multicentre Cross-Sectional Study.” BMJ Open, British Medical Journal Publishing Group, 19 Jan. 2021, bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/1/e043590.

[vii] ibid

[viii] M. , Sandeep Kumar, et al. “Social Economic Impact of COVID-19 Outbreak in India.” International Journal of Pervasive Computing and Communications, 17 July 2020, www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJPCC-06-2020-0053/full/html.

[ix] Sultana, Nasrin. “Covid Second Wave Drags Business Resumption: Nomura.” Mint, 11 May 2021, www.livemint.com/economy/covid-second-wave-drags-business-resumption-nomura-11620720834500.html. ; ETMarkets.com. “Sectors That Will Be the Worst Affected by Covid 2.0 — ​Riding the Wave.” The Economic Times, 25 May 2021, economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/sectors-that-will-be-the-worst-affected-by-covid-2–0/covid-and-indias-economic-growth/slideshow/82929943.cms.

[x] ibid ; “India Manufacturing PMI2012–2021 Data: 2022–2023 Forecast: Calendar: Historical.” India Manufacturing PMI | 2012–2021 Data | 2022–2023 Forecast | Calendar | Historical, tradingeconomics.com/india/manufacturing-pmi.

[xi] Mishra, Asit Ranjan. “Services Activity Slips in Apr as Second Wave Impacts Ops.” Mint, 5 May 2021, www.livemint.com/economy/pmi-services-drops-to-three-month-low-in-april-11620193234851.html. ; ETMarkets.com. “Sectors That Will Be the Worst Affected by Covid 2.0 — ​Riding the Wave.” The Economic Times, 25 May 2021, economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/sectors-that-will-be-the-worst-affected-by-covid-2–0/covid-and-indias-economic-growth/slideshow/82929943.cms.

[xii] Ibid ; Manikandan, Ashwin, and ET Bureau. “Insurers Could Face Billions of Dollars in Fresh Covid-19 Claims — The Economic Times.” The Economic Times, The Economic Times, 13 Apr. 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/banking/finance/insure/insurers-could-face-billions-of-dollars-in-fresh-covid-19-claims/articleshow/82038324.cms.

[xiii] Service, Express News. “Unemployment Persisted Even Six Months after Lockdown: Report- The New Indian Express.” The New Indian Express, The New Indian Express, 8 May 2021, https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/may/08/unemployment-persisted-even-six-months-after-lockdown-report-2299923.html.

[xiv] Inani, Rohit, and IndiaSpend. “How Second Wave of COVID-19 Has Decimated India’s Rural Economy-India News , Firstpost.” Firstpost, 7 June 2021, www.firstpost.com/india/how-second-wave-of-covid-19-has-decimated-indias-rural-economy-9689231.html.

[xv] M. , Sandeep Kumar, et al. “Social Economic Impact of COVID-19 Outbreak in India.” International Journal of Pervasive Computing and Communications, 17 July 2020, www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJPCC-06-2020-0053/full/html.

[xvi] Lowe, Matt, et al. “India’s Food Supply Chain During the Pandemic.” Harvard Business School, Working Paper 21–070, Harvard Business School, 3 Dec. 2020, https://www.hbs.edu/ris/Publication%20Files/WP21-070_572ec13b-a24f-44bb-a76d-c61f54c7d154.pdf.

[xvii] NARAYANAN, SUDHA. Ifpri.org, International Food Policy Research Institute, 20 July 2020, http://www.ifpri.org/blog/how-indias-agrifood-supply-chains-fared-during-covid-19-lockdown-farm-fork

[xviii] ibid

[xix] Memon, Shafique Ul Rehman, et al. “Investigation of COVID-19 Impact on the Food and Beverages Industry: China and India Perspective.” MDPI, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 12 May 2021, https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/10/5/1069.

[xx] KOCHHAR, RAKESH. “India’s Middle Class Shrinks amid COVID-19 as China Sees Less Change | Pew Research Center.” Pew Research Center, https://www.facebook.com/pewresearch, 18 Mar. 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/03/18/in-the-pandemic-indias-middle-class-shrinks-and-poverty-spreads-while-china-sees-smaller-changes/. ; Inani, Rohit, and IndiaSpend. “How Second Wave of COVID-19 Has Decimated India’s Rural Economy-India News , Firstpost.” Firstpost, 7 June 2021, www.firstpost.com/india/how-second-wave-of-covid-19-has-decimated-indias-rural-economy-9689231.html.

[xxi] ibid

[xxii] M. , Sandeep Kumar, et al. “Social Economic Impact of COVID-19 Outbreak in India.” International Journal of Pervasive Computing and Communications, 17 July 2020, www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJPCC-06-2020-0053/full/html.

[xxiii] ibid

[xxiv] Express News Service. “Unemployment Persisted Even Six Months after Lockdown: Report- The New Indian Express.” The New Indian Express, The New Indian Express, 8 May 2021, https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/may/08/unemployment-persisted-even-six-months-after-lockdown-report-2299923.html. ; Goel, Srishti. “Unemployment Persists Even 6 Months after COVID Lockdown; Study Shows Steep Fall in Income.” Republic World, Republic World, 8 May 2021, https://www.republicworld.com/india-news/general-news/unemployment-persists-even-6-months-after-covid-lockdown-study-shows-steep-fall-in-income.html.

[xxv] ibid

[xxvi] ibid

[xxvii] Inani, Rohit, and IndiaSpend. “How Second Wave of COVID-19 Has Decimated India’s Rural Economy-India News , Firstpost.” Firstpost, 7 June 2021, www.firstpost.com/india/how-second-wave-of-covid-19-has-decimated-indias-rural-economy-9689231.html.

[xxviii] Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy Pvt. Ltd. “Employment Rate Continues to Fall.” CMIE, 7 June 2021, www.cmie.com/kommon/bin/sr.php?kall=warticle&dt=20210607151754&msec=740. ; India Today Web Desk. “Unemployment Rate Falls as States Start Easing Covid-19 Restrictions — Business News.” India Today, India Today, 15 June 2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/unemployment-rate-falls-as-states-start-easing-covid-19-restrictions-1815128-2021-06-15.

[xxix] ibid

[xxx] ibid

[xxxi] ibid

[xxxii] India Today Web Desk. “India May See 10% Unemployment Rate in May as Covid Lockdowns Hit Jobs — Business News.” India Today, India Today, 28 May 2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/covid-19-india-may-see-10-unemployment-rate-in-may-as-local-lockdowns-hit-jobs-1808181-2021-05-28. ; Vyas, Mahesh. “15 Million Jobs Lost in May 2021.” CMIE, 1 June 2021, www.cmie.com/kommon/bin/sr.php?kall=warticle&dt=20210601180645&msec=766#:~:text=In%20May%202021%2C%20India's%20labour,8%20per%20cent%20in%20April.

[xxxiii] Inani, Rohit, and IndiaSpend. “How Second Wave of COVID-19 Has Decimated India’s Rural Economy-India News , Firstpost.” Firstpost, 7 June 2021, www.firstpost.com/india/how-second-wave-of-covid-19-has-decimated-indias-rural-economy-9689231.html. ; Pti, PTI. “During COVID-19 Pandemic, India’s Debt to GDP Ratio Increased from 74% to 90%, Says IMF.” The Hindu, The Hindu, 8 Apr. 2021, www.thehindu.com/business/during-covid-19-pandemic-indias-debt-to-gdp-ratio-increased-from-74-to-90-says-imf/article34268953.ece.

[xxxiv] “Unemployment Rate in India.” Unemployment, Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy Pvt. Ltd., unemploymentinindia.cmie.com/.

[xxxv] “Download Entire World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021.” IMF, WORLD ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL SURVEYS, www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April/download-entire-database.

[xxxvi] “Key Steps Taken to Increase Availability, Streamline Distribution of Oxygen: Government.” The Economic Times, PTI, 10 May 2021, economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/key-steps-taken-to-increase-availability-streamline-distribution-of-oxygen-government/articleshow/82524548.cms. ; “Centre Undertakes Multiple Initiatives to Enhance Oxygen Availability, Distribution and Storage Infrastructure;” Press Information Bureau, PIB Delhi , 10 May 2021, pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1717459.

[xxxvii] Neeraj Santoshi, “Centre finally lets Uttarakhand use locally made oxygen to meet state quota”, Hindustan Times, May 26 2021, https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/dehradun-news/centre-finally-lets-uttarakhand-use-locally-made-oxygen-to-meet-state-quota-101622008093061.html

[xxxviii] Sanjay Singh, “Uttarakhand’s coronavirus woes continue”, The Economic Times, 10th May 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/uttarakhands-coronavirus-woes-continue/articleshow/82513127.cms?from=mdr ; PTI. “U’khand CM Seeks Help of Industrialists in Fighting Shortage of Medical Equipment.” The Week, The Week, 15 Dec. 2020, www.theweek.in/wire-updates/business/2021/05/06/des74-ukd-virus-industry.html.

[xxxix] Bhavyata Kagrana, “Oxygen Express Crosses Milestone of Delivering 25,000 MT of LMO Amid COVID-19 Crisis”, Republic World, 6th June 2021, https://www.republicworld.com/india-news/general-news/oxygen-express-crosses-milestone-of-delivering-25000-mt-of-lmo-amid-covid-19-crisis.html ; “Southern Railway Welcomes You.” Southern Railway Welcomes You, Southern Railways , 9 June 2021, https://sr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&dcd=10396&id=0,4,268.

[xl]COVID-19 Directorate Order, “Global notice inviting offer for supply of drugs for COVID-19 management”, 25th May 2021, http://health.mp.gov.in/en/corona-virus

[xli] Express News Service, “Uttar Pradesh Cabinet approves 25% subsidy for new units making medical equipment”, The Indian Express, 16 May 2021, https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/uttar-pradesh-cabinet-approves-25-subsidy-for-new-units-making-medical-equipment-7316826

[xlii] Samarth Shrivastava, “UP invites bids for 350 oxygen plants to prepare for possible third Covid wave”, India Today, Lucknow, 1 June 2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/coronavirus-outbreak/story/up-invites-bids-for-350-oxygen-plants-to-prepare-for-possible-third-covid-wave-1809282-2021-06-01

[xliii] Indian Express Online. “How Chhattisgarh Overcame Its Oxygen Shortage | Oxygen Crisis in India.” YouTube, Indian Express Online, 29 Apr. 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cr36Bc-xx7g.; “388.88 MT of Oxygen Being Produced Daily in Chhattisgarh: CM Bhupesh Baghel — The Economic Times Video | ET Now.” The Economic Times, Economic Times, 23 Apr. 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/388-88-mt-of-oxygen-being-produced-daily-in-chhattisgarh-cm-bhupesh-baghel/videoshow/82218043.cms.

[xliv] Amitabh Srivastava, “Covid second wave: Bihar’s oxygen plan”, India Today, Patna, 26 April 2021,

https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/covid-second-wave-bihar-s-oxygen-plan-1795244-2021-04-26 ; Swaroop, Vijay. “Bihar Steps on the Gas to Beat Oxygen Crisis.” Hindustan Times, Hindustan Times, 5 May 2021, www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/bihar-steps-on-the-gas-to-beat-oxygen-crisis-101620228395768.html.

[xlv] Amitabh Srivastava, “Bihar’s desperate Covid fight”, India Today, Patna, 9 May 2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/bihar-s-desperate-covid-fight-1800569-2021-05-09

[xlvi]Rajesh Kumar Thakur, “Bihar: Sufficient medical equipment, committed workforce will defeat COVID-19, says top official”, New Indian Express, 30th March 2021, https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/mar/30/bihar-sufficient-medical-equipments-committed-workforce-will-defeat-covid-19-says-top-official-2123503.html.

[xlvii] ASRP Mukesh, “Jharkhand to manufacture oxygen flow meters to tackle Covid crisis: CM”, Times of India, 11 May 2021, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ranchi/state-to-manufacture-oxygen-flow-meters-to-tackle-cov-crisis-cm/articleshow/82532486.cms

[xlviii] Express News Service, “‘Sanjeevani Vaahan’ to deal with oxygen crisis at Covid hospitals in Jharkhand”, New Indian Express, 4 May 2021, https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/may/04/sanjeevani-vaahan-to-deal-with-oxygen-crisis-at-covid-hospitals-in-jharkhand-2298329.html

[xlix] Nikhila Henry and Mohammad Sartaj Aslam, “Foreign COVID Aid: Maharashtra, Jharkhand Struggle for Fair Share”, The Quint, 22 May 2021, https://www.thequint.com/coronavirus/foreign-aid-maha-jharkhand-get-a-fraction-in-talks-with-centre#read-more.

[l] Special Correspondent, “Coronavirus — All foreign aid allocated to States: Centre”, The Hindu, 6 May 2021, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/covid-19-global-aid-allocated-to-states-says-centre/article34493426.ece

[li] Sujit Kumar Bisoyi, “Odisha government bid to ramp up production of medical oxygen, cylinders”, Times of India, 12 May 2021, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/odisha-government-bid-to-ramp-up-production-of-medical-oxygen-cylinders/articleshow/82568553.cms ; Express News Service. “COVID Crisis: Oxygen Is Available in Odisha but Where Are the Cylinders?” The New Indian Express, The New Indian Express, 9 May 2021, www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2021/may/09/covid-crisis-oxygen-is-available-in-odisha-but-where-are-the-cylinders-2300307.html.

[lii] Ibid.

[liii] Deeksha Bharadwaj, “Oxygen demand rises in southern states, Odisha and Assam”, Hindustan Times, 21 May 2021, https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/oxygen-demand-rises-in-southern-states-odisha-and-assam-101621556557264.html

[liv] Daily Logistics Supply in West Bengal for COVID-19, 9 May 2021, https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/uploaded_files/corona/For_Upload_Unit_wise_Cumulative_Logistics_Supply_(From_CMS)_for_COVID-19_as_on_09.05_.2020_.pdf

[lv] Directorate of Health Services, Govt. of West Bengal, 2 June 2021, https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/uploaded_files/corona/Advisory_on_Amphotericin_B.pdf

[lvi] Directorate of Health Services, Government of West Bengal, 12 May 2021, https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/uploaded_files/corona/Order_for_State_Committee_on_Oxygen.pdf

[lvii] Umanand Jaiswal, “Assam govt announces free power supply to oxygen plants”, Telegraph India, Guwahati, 20 May 2021, https://www.telegraphindia.com/north-east/coronavirus-outbreak-assam-government-announces-free-power-supply-to-oxygen-plants/cid/1816107

[lviii] Utpal Parashar, “Covid-19: Assam becomes first state to import PPE kits directly from China”, Hindustan Times, 15 April 2021, https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/covid-19-assam-becomes-first-state-to-import-ppe-kits-directly-from-china/story-TEemFb6kizgU1ceOrioeFI.html

[lix] Bikas Singh, “Assam, Meghalaya agree on Assam acting as oxygen hub for whole north east”, Economic Times, 18 May 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/assam-meghalaya-agree-on-assam-acting-as-oxygen-hub-for-whole-north-east/articleshow/82742074.cms?from=mdr

[lx] Government of Arunachal Pradesh — Notice inviting quotation, 8 May 2021 https://covid19.assam.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Order-for-Designated-Cremation-ground-Dated-08-05-21.pdf

[lxi] Government of Manipur — Letter Requesting Help from Private Sector, 25 May 2021, http://nrhmmanipur.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Scan-25-May-2021.pdf

[lxii] Ratnadip Choudhury, “Mizoram Receives Oxygen Concentrators, Cylinders From Taiwan And Ireland”, NDTV, 8 May 2021, https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mizoram-receives-oxygen-concentrators-cylinders-from-taiwan-and-ireland-2437450

[lxiii] Henry L Khojol, “COVID-19: Lone Mizoram district receives outside aid”, EastMojo, 5 June 2021, https://www.eastmojo.com/mizoram/2021/06/05/covid-19-lone-mizoram-district-receives-outside-aid/. ; “Mizoram: Lunglei district receives aid for Covid-19 treatment”, Northeast Now, 5 June 2021, https://nenow.in/north-east-news/mizoram/mizoram-lunglei-district-receives-aid-for-covid-19-treatment.html ; “CSR Kaltlangin Lungleiah Medical Equipments Lo Thleng — Lunglei DC in H&FW Hotute Hnenah Hlan.” DIRECTORATE OF INFORMATION & PUBLIC RELATIONS, DIRECTORATE OF INFORMATION & PUBLIC RELATIONS, 2021, https://dipr.mizoram.gov.in/post/csr-kaltlangin-lungleiah-medical-equipments-lo-thleng-lunglei-dc-in-hfw-hotute-hnenah-hlan.

[lxiv] Medolenuo Ambrocia, “No need to worry, Nagaland has sufficient oxygen: COVID-19 spokesperson”, EastMojo, 25 May 2021, https://www.eastmojo.com/nagaland/2021/05/25/no-need-to-worry-nagaland-has-sufficient-oxygen-covid-19-spokesperson/

[lxv] Thejoto Nienu, “Nagaland Health minister calls for concerted effort to fight Covid-19 second wave”, Eastern Mirror, 4 June 2021, https://easternmirrornagaland.com/nagaland-health-minister-calls-for-concerted-effort-to-fight-covid-19-second-wave/

[lxvi] ibid

[lxvii] Vishnoi, Anubhuti, and ET Bureau. “Centralised Oxygen Supply Plan Ready for 19 States, Union Territories — The Economic Times.” The Economic Times, The Economic Times, 23 Apr. 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/centralised-oxygen-supply-plan-ready-for-19-states-uts/articleshow/82202874.cms.

[lxviii] ibid

[lxix] ibid

[lxx] Moole, Janhavee. “A Nightmare on Repeat — India Is Running out of Oxygen Again — BBC News.” BBC News, BBC News, 23 Apr. 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-56841381.

[lxxi] Kumar, Hari, et al. “A Desperate India Falls Prey to COVID Scammers — The Economic Times.” The Economic Times, The Economic Times, 17 May 2021, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/a-desperate-india-falls-prey-to-covid-scammers/articleshow/82698790.cms.

[lxxii] Kapoor, Geetanjali, et al. “COVID-19 in India : State-Wise Estimates of Current Hospital Beds, Intensive Care Unit (ICU) Beds and Ventilators.” CDDEP, Princeton University, 20 Apr. 2020, https://cddep.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/State-wise-estimates-of-current-beds-and-ventilators_24Apr2020.pdf.

[lxxiii] ibid

[lxxiv] ibid

[lxxv] ibid

[lxxvi] ibid

[lxxvii] “Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India.” Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, Census of India, https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/population_enumeration.html.

[lxxviii] ibid

[lxxix] ibid

[lxxx] ibid

[lxxxi] Karan, Anup, et al. “Size, Composition and Distribution of Human Resource for Health in India: New Estimates Using National Sample Survey and Registry Data.” BMJ Open, British Medical Journal Publishing Group, 1 Apr. 2019, bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/4/e025979.

[lxxxii] Press Release from Ministry of Defence, 2 June 2021, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1723653

[lxxxiii] Shivani Azad, “Uttarakhand to convert 300 Ayush hospitals into 24X7 Covid care units”, Time of India, 20 May 2021, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/uttarakhand-to-convert-300-ayush-hospitals-into-24x7-covid-care-units/articleshow/82778333.cms

[lxxxiv] Uttarakhand Government Resource, Department of Medical Health & Family Welfare https://covid19.uk.gov.in/bedssummary.aspx

[lxxxv] “Nearly 50% villages in Chhattisgarh are now Corona-free”, Times of India, 28 May 2021, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/raipur/nearly-50-villages-in-chhattisgarh-are-now-corona-free/articleshow/83030069.cms.

[lxxxvi] Ibid ; ANI. “9,462 Villages in Chhattisgarh ‘Corona-Free’.” ANI News, ANI , 27 May 2021,

www.aninews.in/news/national/general-news/9462-villages-in-chhattisgarh-corona-free20210527175007/.

[lxxxvii] Chhattisgarh Government Resource for COVID-19 Facilities, http://cghealth.nic.in/cghealth17/Information/content/CORONA/DedicatedCOVIDHospitals.pdf

[lxxxviii] “How Madhya Pradesh plans to become COVID-19 free by May 31?”, CNBC TV18, 25 May 2021, https://www.cnbctv18.com/healthcare/how-madhya-pradesh-plans-to-become-covid-19-free-by-may-31-9422081.htm

[lxxxix]“Madhya Pradesh government offers space to private hospitals for Covid-19 treatment”, Mint, 12 April 2021, https://www.livemint.com/news/india/madhya-pradesh-govt-offers-space-to-private-hospitals-for-covid-19-treatment-11618221315937.html

[xc] Avaneesh Mishra, “With active cases nearing 10,000, Uttar Pradesh govt again notifies 45 hospitals as Covid facilities”, Indian Express, Lucknow, 1 April 2021, https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/with-active-cases-nearing-10000-uttar-pradesh-govt-again-notifies-45-hospitals-as-covid-facilities-7253603/

[xci] Neha Shukla, “Covid-19: Uttar Pradesh govt fixes fare for ambulance services”, Times of India, 2 June 2021, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/covid-19-uttar-pradesh-govt-fixes-fare-for-ambulance-services/articleshow/83177165.cms

[xcii] Bihar Health Department COVID-19 Beds Availability, https://covid19health.bihar.gov.in/DailyDashboard/BedsOccupied

[xciii] Jharkhand Government Resource for COVID-19 Bed Availability, http://www.amritvahini.in/DashBoardNHM.aspx

[xciv] Odisha Government Resource for COVID-19 Bed Availability, https://health.odisha.gov.in/pdf/List-COVID-facilities-State-Odisha.pdf

[xcv] West Bengal Government Resource for Bed Availability, https://excise.wb.gov.in/chms/Portal_Default.aspx

[xcvi] West Bengal Ambulance Provider Resource, https://excise.wb.gov.in/chms/Public/Page/CHMS_Public_MIS_Ambulance.aspx

[xcvii] Government of Nagaland COVID-19 Bed Availability, http://nhmnagaland.in/Notification_file_path/Dedicated%20COVID%20Hospitals%20in%20Nagaland.pdf

[xcviii] “Coronavirus | Assam gives ambulance status to oxygen carriers”, The Hindu, Guwahati, 21 April 2021, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/coronavirus-assam-gives-ambulance-status-to-oxygen-carriers/article34379459.ece

[xcix] Government of Manipur COVID-19 Bed Availability, http://nrhmmanipur.org/?page_id=2602

[c] Government of Meghalaya Resource COVID-19 Bed Availability, http://meghalayaonline.gov.in/covid/images/materials/covidupdate.pdf

[ci] Government of Mizoram Resource COVID-19 Bed Availability https://www.nhmmizoram.org/page?id=202

[cii] Government of Nagaland Rseource COVID-19 Bed Availability, http://nhmnagaland.in/Notification_file_path/Dedicated%20COVID%20Hospitals%20in%20Nagaland.pdf

[ciii] Government of Tripura Resource COVID-19 Bed Availability, https://covid19.tripura.gov.in/Bed_Availability_Status.html

[civ] Government of Sikkim Resource COVID-19 Bed Availability, https://www.covid19sikkim.org

[cv]Shelar, Jyoti. “Mumbai’s Health Infrastructure Falls Short as Patients Go after Private Medical Care | Mumbai News — Hindustan Times.” Hindustan Times, Hindustan Times, 14 Apr. 2021, https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/mumbai-news/mumbais-health-infrastructure-falls-short-as-patients-go-after-private-medical-care-101618340683425.html.

[cvi] Kumar, Anant et al. “COVID-19: Challenges and its consequences for rural health care in India.” Public health in practice (Oxford, England) vol. 1 (2020): 100009. doi:10.1016/j.puhip.2020.100009

[cvii] MITRA, SHOUVIK. “The Implications of COVID-19 for Rural India.” India Development Review, India Development Review, 25 Mar. 2021, idronline.org/the-implications-of-covid-19-for-rural-india/.

[cviii] Javadekar, Dr Prachee, and Dr Harshada Vaidya Kannur. “The Social Impact of COVID-19 on India.” The Bridge Chronicle, The Bridge Chronicle, 1 May 2021, www.thebridgechronicle.com/opinion/social-impact-covid-19-india-49313.

[cix] ibid

[cx] ibid

[cxi] “Global Gender Gap Report 2021 — Insight Report.” World Economic Forum, World Economic Forum, 2021, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2021.pdf.

[cxii] ibid

[cxiii] ibid

[cxiv] P., Mufsin P. P. P., and Muhsin P. P. P. P. . “Sociocultural and Religious Factors Complicate India’s COVID-19 Response.” The Diplomat, The Diplomat, 25 Mar. 2020, thediplomat.com/2020/03/sociocultural-and-religious-factors-complicate-indias-covid-19-response/.

[cxv] Tarfe, Akshay. “How India’s Covid-19 Communication Strategy Is Failing to Combat Vaccine Hesitancy.” The Indian Express, The Indian Express, 3 June 2021, indianexpress.com/article/opinion/how-indias-covid-19-communication-strategy-is-failing-to-combat-vaccine-hesitancy-7342890/.

[cxvi] M. , Sandeep Kumar, et al. “Social Economic Impact of COVID-19 Outbreak in India.” International Journal of Pervasive Computing and Communications, 17 July 2020, www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJPCC-06-2020-0053/full/html.

[cxvii] Rawal, Mukesh. “An Analysis of COVID-19 Impacts On Indian Education System.” Dr. D. Y. Patil College of Education, Educational Resurgence Journal Volume 2, 5 Jan. 2021, https://coed.dypvp.edu.in/educational-resurgence-journal/documents/jan-2021/35-40.pdf.

[cxviii] Pothula, Vijaya Mary. “COVID-19’s Impact on Education in India: It’s Not All Bad News.” Global Sisters Report, Global Sisters Report, 4 Feb. 2021, www.globalsistersreport.org/news/ministry/column/covid-19s-impact-education-india-its-not-all-bad-news.

[cxix] Deka, Kaushik, and Shelly Anand. “Covid-19 Fallout: The Impact on Education in India.” India Today, India Today, 4 Jan. 2021, www.indiatoday.in/magazine/news-makers/story/20210111-school-of-hard-knocks-1755078-2021-01-03. ; “Education.” UNICEF India, UNICEF India, 15 July 2021, www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/education. ; Press Trust of India. “Just 24% of Indian Households Have Internet Facility to Access E-Education: UNICEF — Hindustan Times.” Hindustan Times, Hindustan Times, 27 Aug. 2020, https://www.hindustantimes.com/education/just-24-of-indian-households-have-internet-facility-to-access-e-education-unicef/story-a1g7DqjP6lJRSh6D6yLJjL.html.

[cxx] Ibid ; “Rapid Assessment of Learning during School Closures in the Context of COVID-19 | UNICEF India.” UNICEF, UNICEF, https://www.unicef.org/india/reports/rapid-assessment-learning-during-school-closures-context-covid-19.

[cxxi] Deka, Kaushik, and Shelly Anand. “Covid-19 Fallout: The Impact on Education in India.” India Today, India Today, 4 Jan. 2021, www.indiatoday.in/magazine/news-makers/story/20210111-school-of-hard-knocks-1755078-2021-01-03. ; Jajodia, Bishakha. “Dawn of Digital Education in Government Schools.” IndianFolk, IndianFolk, 22 Mar. 2021, https://www.indianfolk.com/dawn-digital-education-government-schools/.

[cxxii] Rawal, Mukesh. “An Analysis of COVID-19 Impacts On Indian Education System.” Dr. D. Y. Patil College of Education, Educational Resurgence Journal Volume 2, 5 Jan. 2021, https://coed.dypvp.edu.in/educational-resurgence-journal/documents/jan-2021/35-40.pdf.

[cxxiii] ibid

[cxxiv] India Today Web Desk. “Challenges in Indian Education System Due to Covid-19 Pandemic — Education Today News.” India Today, India Today, 10 May 2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/challenges-in-indian-education-system-due-to-covid-19-pandemic-1800822-2021-05-10.

[cxxv] Deka, Kaushik, and Shelly Anand. “Covid-19 Fallout: The Impact on Education in India.” India Today, India Today, 4 Jan. 2021, www.indiatoday.in/magazine/news-makers/story/20210111-school-of-hard-knocks-1755078-2021-01-03.

[cxxvi] Pothula, Vijaya Mary. “COVID-19’s Impact on Education in India: It’s Not All Bad News.” Global Sisters Report, Global Sisters Report, 4 Feb. 2021, www.globalsistersreport.org/news/ministry/column/covid-19s-impact-education-india-its-not-all-bad-news.

[cxxvii] ibid

[cxxviii] ibid

[cxxix] Pothula, Vijaya Mary. “COVID-19’s Impact on Education in India: It’s Not All Bad News.” Global Sisters Report, Global Sisters Report, 4 Feb. 2021, www.globalsistersreport.org/news/ministry/column/covid-19s-impact-education-india-its-not-all-bad-news.

[cxxx] Lokhandwala, Snehal, and Pratibha Gautam. “Indirect Impact of COVID-19 on Environment: A Brief Study in Indian Context.” PubMed Central (PMC), Sept. 2020, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7299871/.

[cxxxi] ibid

[cxxxii] Worland, Justin. “Climate’s Impact on India’s COVID-19 Crisis | Time.” Time, Time, 6 May 2021, https://time.com/6046334/india-covid-19-climate-change/.

[cxxxiii] ibid

[cxxxiv] Datta, Dr. Satabdi. “India’s Environmental Laws and COVID-19.” Green Economy Coalition, Green Economy Coalition, 24 July 2020, www.greeneconomycoalition.org/news-and-resources/indias-environmental-laws-and-covid-19.

[cxxxv] Worland, Justin. “Climate’s Impact on India’s COVID-19 Crisis | Time.” Time, Time, 6 May 2021, https://time.com/6046334/india-covid-19-climate-change/.

[cxxxvi] DTE Staff. “State of India’s Environment In Figures: Rural India Worst Hit by COVID-19 Second Wave.” Down To Earth | Latest News, Opinion, Analysis on Environment & Science Issues | India, South Asia, Down To Earth, 4 June 2021, https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/state-of-india-s-environment-in-figures-rural-india-worst-hit-by-covid-19-second-wave-77280 ; Mordani, Sneha. “46% Increase in Covid Biomedical Waste in April-May, Says Report — Coronavirus Outbreak News.” India Today, India Today, 12 June 2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/coronavirus-outbreak/story/46-increase-in-covid-biomedical-waste-april-bihar-karnataka-1813935-2021-06-12.

[cxxxvii] ibid

[cxxxviii] Ankit, Kumar, A., Jain, V. et al. Environmental impact of COVID-19 pandemic: more negatives than positives. Environmental Sustainability (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42398-021-00159-9

[cxxxix] ibid